From 455d9558417a759fae3ccbe5cde5c9f5064a08d2 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: krasimir Date: Sun, 6 Jun 2010 11:06:44 +0000 Subject: changes in SUMO: formatting and fixes for lots of lots of small problems --- examples/SUMO/Elements.gf | 929 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ 1 file changed, 929 insertions(+) create mode 100644 examples/SUMO/Elements.gf (limited to 'examples/SUMO/Elements.gf') diff --git a/examples/SUMO/Elements.gf b/examples/SUMO/Elements.gf new file mode 100644 index 000000000..0a1131c2d --- /dev/null +++ b/examples/SUMO/Elements.gf @@ -0,0 +1,929 @@ +abstract Elements = Merge ** { + + -- Silvery radioactive metallic element, belongs to + -- group 3 of the periodic table. The most stable isotope, Ac_227, has a + -- half_life of 217 years. Ac_228 (half_life of 6.13 hours) also occurs in + -- nature. There are 22 other artificial isotopes, all radioactive and + -- having very short half_lives. Chemistry similar to lanthanum. Used as a + -- source of alpha particles. Discovered by A. Debierne in 1899. + fun Actinium : Class ; + fun Actinium_Class : SubClass Actinium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery_white lustrous metallic element of group + -- 3 of the periodic table. Highly reactive but protected by a thin + -- transparent layer of the oxide which quickly forms in air. There are many + -- alloys of aluminum, as well as a good number of industrial uses. Makes up + -- 8.1 percent of the Earth's crust, by weight. Isolated in 1825 by H.C. + -- Oersted. + fun Aluminum : Class ; + fun Aluminum_Class : SubClass Aluminum ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, + -- belongs to the actinoids. Ten known isotopes. Am_243 is the most stable + -- isotope, with a half_life of 7.95*10^3 years. Discovered by Glenn T. + -- Seaborg and associates in 1945, it was obtained by bombarding + -- {uranium}_238 with alpha particles. + fun Americium : Class ; + fun Americium_Class : SubClass Americium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Element of group 15. Multiple allotropic forms. + -- The stable form of antimony is a blue_white metal. Yellow and black + -- antimony are unstable non_metals. Used in flame_proofing, paints, + -- ceramics, enamels, and rubber. Attacked by oxidizing acids and halogens. + -- First reported by Tholden in 1450. + fun Antimony : Class ; + fun Antimony_Class : SubClass Antimony ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Monatomic noble gas. Makes up 0.93 percent of the + -- air. Colourless, odorless. Is inert and has no true compounds. Lord + -- Rayleigh and Sir william Ramsey identified argon in 1894. + fun Argon : Class ; + fun Argon_Class : SubClass Argon ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Metalloid element of group 15. There are three + -- allotropes, yellow, black, and grey. Reacts with halogens, concentrated + -- oxidizing acids and hot alkalis. Albertus Magnus is believed to have been + -- the first to isolate the element in 1250. + fun Arsenic : Class ; + fun Arsenic_Class : SubClass Arsenic ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive halogen element. Occurs naturally + -- from uranium and thorium decay. At least 20 known isotopes. At_210, the + -- most stable, has a half_life of 8.3 hours. Synthesized by nuclear + -- bombardment in 1940 by D.R. Corson, K.R. MacKenzie and E. Segre at the + -- University of California. + fun Astatine : Class ; + fun Astatine_Class : SubClass Astatine ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery_white reactive element, belonging to group + -- 2 of the periodic table. Soluble barium compounds are extremely + -- poisonous. Identified in 1774 by Karl Scheele and extracted in 1808 by + -- Humphry Davy. + fun Barium : Class ; + fun Barium_Class : SubClass Barium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. + -- Belongs to actinoid series. Eight known isotopes, the most common Bk_247, + -- has a half_life of 1.4*10^3 years. First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg + -- and associates in 1949 by bombarding americium_241 with alpha + -- particles. + fun Berkelium : Class ; + fun Berkelium_Class : SubClass Berkelium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Grey metallic element of group 2 of the periodic + -- table. Is toxic and can cause severe lung diseases and dermatitis. Shows + -- high covalent character. It was isolated independently by F. Wohler and + -- A.A. Bussy in 1828. + fun Beryllium : Class ; + fun Beryllium_Class : SubClass Beryllium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- White crystalline metal with a pink tinge, belongs + -- to group 15. Most diamagnetic of all metals and has the lowest thermal + -- conductivity of all the elements except mercury. Lead_free bismuth + -- compounds are used in cosmetics and medical procedures. Burns in the air + -- and produces a blue flame. In 1753, C.G. Junine first demonstrated that + -- it was different from lead. + fun Bismuth : Class ; + fun Bismuth_Class : SubClass Bismuth ElementalSubstance ; + + -- An element of group 13 of the periodic table. There + -- are two allotropes, amorphous boron is a brown power, but metallic boron + -- is black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale) and a bad + -- conductor in room temperatures. It is never found free in nature. + -- Boron_10 is used in nuclear reactor control rods and shields. It was + -- discovered in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy and by J.L. Gay_Lussac and L.J. + -- Thenard. + fun Boron : Class ; + fun Boron_Class : SubClass Boron ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Halogen element. Red volatile liquid at room + -- temperature. Its reactivity is somewhere between chlorine and iodine. + -- Harmful to human tissue in a liquid state, the vapour irritates eyes and + -- throat. Discovered in 1826 by Antoine Balard. + fun Bromine : Class ; + fun Bromine_Class : SubClass Bromine ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft bluish metal belonging to group 12 of the + -- periodic table. Extremely toxic even in low concentrations. Chemically + -- similar to zinc, but lends itself to more complex compounds. Discovered + -- in 1817 by F. Stromeyer. + fun Cadmium : Class ; + fun Cadmium_Class : SubClass Cadmium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery_white metallic element belonging to + -- group 1 of the periodic table. One of the three metals which are liquid + -- at room temperature. Cs_133 is the natural, and only stable, isotope. + -- Fifteen other radioisotopes exist. Caesium reacts explosively with cold + -- water, and ice at temperatures above 157K. Caesium hydroxide is the + -- strongest base known. Caesium is the most electropositive, most alkaline + -- and has the least ionization potential of all the elements. Known uses + -- include the basis of atomic clocks, catalyst for the hydrogenation of some + -- organic compounds, and in photoelectric cells. Caesium was discovered by + -- Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen in Germany in 1860 spectroscopically. + -- Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum. + -- The name comes from the latin word caesius, which means sky blue. Caesium + -- should be considered highly toxic. Some of the radioisotopes are even + -- more toxic. + fun Caesium : Class ; + fun Caesium_Class : SubClass Caesium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft grey metallic element belonging to group 2 of + -- the periodic table. Used a reducing agent in the extraction of thorium, + -- zirconium and uranium. Essential element for living organisms. + fun Calcium : Class ; + fun Calcium_Class : SubClass Calcium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. + -- Belongs to actinoid series. Cf_251 has a half life of about 700 years. + -- Nine isotopes are known. Cf_252 is an intense {neutron} source, which + -- makes it an intense {neutron} source and gives it a use in {neutron} + -- activation analysis and a possible use as a radiation source in medicine. + -- First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in 1950. + fun Californium : Class ; + fun Californium_Class : SubClass Californium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic + -- table. It has three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and + -- fullerite. Carbon_14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon + -- occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon + -- has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself, + -- and a wide variety of other elements. + fun Carbon : Class ; + fun Carbon_Class : SubClass Carbon ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery metallic element, belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. Four natural isotopes exist, and fifteen radioactive + -- isotopes have been identified. Used in some rare_earth alloys. The + -- oxidized form is used in the glass industry. Discovered by Martin .H. + -- Klaproth in 1803. + fun Cerium : Class ; + fun Cerium_Class : SubClass Cerium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Halogen element. Poisonous greenish_yellow gas. + -- Occurs widely in nature as sodium chloride in seawater. Reacts directly + -- with many elements and compounds, strong oxidizing agent. Discovered by + -- Karl Scheele in 1774. Humphrey David confirmed it as an element in + -- 1810. + fun Chlorine : Class ; + fun Chlorine_Class : SubClass Chlorine ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Hard silvery transition element. Used in + -- decorative electroplating. Discovered in 1797 by Vauquelin. + fun Chromium : Class ; + fun Chromium_Class : SubClass Chromium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Light grey transition element. Some meteorites + -- contain small amounts of metallic cobalt. Generally alloyed for use. + -- Mammals require small amounts of cobalt salts. Cobalt_60, an artificially + -- produced radioactive isotope of Cobalt is an important radioactive tracer + -- and cancer_treatment agent. Discovered by G. Brandt in 1737. + fun Cobalt : Class ; + fun Cobalt_Class : SubClass Cobalt ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Red_brown transition element. Known by the Romans + -- as 'cuprum.' Extracted and used for thousands of years. Malleable, + -- ductile and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. When in moist + -- conditions, a greenish layer forms on the outside. + fun Copper : Class ; + fun Copper_Class : SubClass Copper ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs + -- to actinoid series. Nine known isotopes, Cm_247 has a half_life of + -- 1.64*10^7 years. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in + -- 1944, first produced by L.B. Werner and I. Perlman in 1947 by bombarding + -- americium_241 with {neutron}s. Named for Marie Curie. + fun Curium : Class ; + fun Curium_Class : SubClass Curium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Metallic with a bright silvery_white lustre. + -- Dysprosium belongs to the lanthanoids. It is relatively stable in air at + -- room temperatures, it will however dissolve in mineral acids, evolving + -- hydrogen. It is found in from rare_earth minerals. There are seven + -- natural isotopes of dysprosium, and eight radioisotopes, Dy_154 being the + -- most stable with a half_life of 3*10^6 years. Dysprosium is used as a + -- neutron absorber in nuclear fission reactions, and in compact disks. It + -- was discovered by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 in France. Its + -- name comes from the Greek word dysprositos, which means hard to obtain. + fun Dysprosium : Class ; + fun Dysprosium_Class : SubClass Dysprosium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Appearance is unknown, however it is most + -- probably metallic and silver or gray in color. Radioactive metallic + -- transuranic element belonging to the actinoids. Es_254 has the longest + -- half_life of the eleven known isotopes at 270 days. First identified by + -- Albert Ghiorso and associates in the debris of the 1952 hydrogen bomb + -- explosion. In 1961 the first microgram quantities of Es_232 were + -- separated. While einsteinium never exists naturally, if a sufficient + -- amount was assembled, it would pose a radiation hazard. + fun Einsteinium : Class ; + fun Einsteinium_Class : SubClass Einsteinium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element which belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. Six natural isotopes that are stable. Twelve artificial + -- isotopes are known. Used in nuclear technology as a neutron absorber. It + -- is being investigated for other possible uses. Discovered by Carl G. + -- Mosander in 1843. + fun Erbium : Class ; + fun Erbium_Class : SubClass Erbium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the + -- lanthanoids. Eu_151 and Eu_153 are the only two stable isotopes, both of + -- which are {neutron} absorbers. Discovered in 1889 by Sir William + -- Crookes. + fun Europium : Class ; + fun Europium_Class : SubClass Europium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs + -- to the actinoids. Ten known isotopes, most stable is Fm_257 with a + -- half_life of 10 days. First identified by Albert Ghiorso and associates + -- in the debris of the first hydrogen_bomb explosion in 1952. + fun Fermium : Class ; + fun Fermium_Class : SubClass Fermium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- A poisonous pale yellow gaseous element belonging + -- to group 17 of the periodic table (The halogens). It is the most + -- chemically reactive and electronegative element. It is highly dangerous, + -- causing severe chemical burns on contact with flesh. Fluorine was + -- identified by Scheele in 1771 and first isolated by Moissan in 1886. + fun Fluorine : Class ; + fun Fluorine_Class : SubClass Fluorine ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive element, belongs to group 1 of the + -- periodic table. Found in uranium and thorium ores. The 22 known isotopes + -- are all radioactive, with the most stable being Fr_223. Its existence was + -- confirmed in 1939 by Marguerite Perey. + fun Francium : Class ; + fun Francium_Class : SubClass Francium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the + -- lanthanoids. Seven natural, stable isotopes are known in addition to + -- eleven artificial isotopes. Gd_155 and Gd_157 and the best neutron + -- absorbers of all elements. Gadolinium compounds are used in electronics. + -- Discovered by J.C.G Marignac in 1880. + fun Gadolinium : Class ; + fun Gadolinium_Class : SubClass Gadolinium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 13 + -- of the periodic table. The two stable isotopes are Ga_69 and Ga_71. + -- Eight radioactive isotopes are known, all having short half_lives. + -- Gallium Arsenide is used as a semiconductor. Corrodes most other metals + -- by diffusing into their lattice. First identified by Francois Lecoq de + -- Boisbaudran in 1875. + fun Gallium : Class ; + fun Gallium_Class : SubClass Gallium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Lustrous hard metalloid element, belongs to + -- group 14 of the periodic table. Forms a large number of organometallic + -- compounds. Predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, it was actually found in 1886 + -- by Winkler. + fun Germanium : Class ; + fun Germanium_Class : SubClass Germanium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Gold is gold colored. It is the most malleable and + -- ductile metal known. There is only one stable isotope of gold, and five + -- radioisotopes of gold, Au_195 being the most stable with a half_life of + -- 186 days. Gold is used as a monetary standard, in jewelry, dentistry, + -- electronics. Au_198 is used in treating cancer and some other medical + -- conditions. Gold has been known to exist as far back as 2600 BC. Gold + -- comes from the Anglo_Saxon word gold. Its symbol, Au, comes from the + -- Latin word aurum, which means gold. Gold is not particularly toxic, + -- however it is known to cause damage to the liver and kidneys in some. + fun Gold : Class ; + fun Gold_Class : SubClass Gold ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery lustrous metallic transition element. + -- Used in tungsten alloys in filaments and electrodes, also acts as a + -- neutron absorber. First reported by Urbain in 1911, existence was finally + -- established in 1923 by D. Coster, G.C. de Hevesy in 1923. + fun Hafnium : Class ; + fun Hafnium_Class : SubClass Hafnium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colourless, odourless gaseous nonmetallic element. + -- Belongs to group 18 of the periodic table. Lowest boiling point of all + -- elements and can only be solidified under pressure. Chemically inert, no + -- known compounds. Discovered in the solar spectrum in 1868 by Lockyer. + fun Helium : Class ; + fun Helium_Class : SubClass Helium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Relatively soft and malleable silvery_white + -- metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. It + -- oxidizes in moist air and at high temperatures. It belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. A rare_earth metal, it is found in the minerals monazite and + -- gadolinite. It possesses unusual magnetic properties. One natural + -- isotope, Ho_165 exists, six radioisotopes exist, the most stable being + -- Ho_163 with a half_life of 4570 years. Holmium is used in some metal + -- alloys, it is also said to stimulate the metabolism. Discovered by Per + -- Theodor Cleve and J.L. Soret in Switzerland in 1879. The name homium + -- comes from the Greek word Holmia which means Sweden. While all holmium + -- compounds should be considered highly toxic, initial evidence seems to + -- indicate that they do not pose much danger. The metal's dust however, is + -- a fire hazard. + fun Holmium : Class ; + fun Holmium_Class : SubClass Holmium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colourless, odourless gaseous chemical element. + -- Lightest and most abundant element in the universe. Present in water and + -- in all organic compounds. Chemically reacts with most elements. + -- Discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1776. + fun Hydrogen : Class ; + fun Hydrogen_Class : SubClass Hydrogen ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery element belonging to group 13 of the + -- periodic table. The most common natural isotope is In_115, which has a + -- half_life of 6*10^4 years. Five other radioisotopes exist. Discovered in + -- 1863 by Reich and Richter. + fun Indium : Class ; + fun Indium_Class : SubClass Indium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Dark violet nonmetallic element, belongs to group + -- 17 of the periodic table. Insoluble in water. Required as a trace + -- element for living organisms. One stable isotope, I_127 exists, in + -- addition to fourteen radioactive isotopes. Chemically the least reactive + -- of the halogens, and the most electropositive metallic halogen. + -- Discovered in 1812 by Courtois. + fun Iodine : Class ; + fun Iodine_Class : SubClass Iodine ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Very hard and brittle, silvery metallic transition + -- element. It has a yellowish cast to it. Salts of iridium are highly + -- colored. It is the most corrosion resistant metal known, not attacked by + -- any acid, but is attacked by molten salts. There are two natural isotopes + -- of iridium, and 4 radioisotopes, the most stable being Ir_192 with a + -- half_life of 73.83 days. Ir_192 decays into {platinum}, while the other + -- radioisotopes decay into {osmium}. Iridium is used in high temperature + -- apparatus, electrical contacts, and as a hardening agent for platinum. + -- Discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant in England. The name comes from + -- the Greek word iris, which means rainbow. Iridium metal is generally + -- non_toxic due to its relative unreactivity, but iridium compounds should + -- be considered highly toxic. + fun Iridium : Class ; + fun Iridium_Class : SubClass Iridium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery malleable and ductile metallic transition + -- element. Has nine isotopes and is the fourth most abundant element in the + -- earth's crust. Required by living organisms as a trace element (used in + -- hemoglobin in humans.) Quite reactive, oxidizes in moist air, displaces + -- hydrogen from dilute acids and combines with nonmetallic elements. + fun Iron : Class ; + fun Iron_Class : SubClass Iron ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colorless gaseous element, belongs to the noble + -- gases. Occurs in the air, 0.0001 percent by volume. It can be extracted + -- from liquid air by fractional distillation. Generally not isolated, but + -- used with other inert gases in fluorescent lamps. Five natural isotopes, + -- and five radioactive isotopes. Kr_85, the most stable radioactive + -- isotope, has a half_life of 10.76 years and is produced in fission + -- reactors. Practically inert, though known to form compounds with + -- {fluorine}. + fun Krypton : Class ; + fun Krypton_Class : SubClass Krypton ElementalSubstance ; + + -- (From the Greek word lanthanein, to line hidden) + -- Silvery metallic element belonging to group 3 of the periodic table and + -- oft considered to be one of the lanthanoids. Found in some rare_earth + -- minerals. Twenty_five natural isotopes exist. La_139 which is stable, + -- and La_138 which has a half_life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. The other + -- twenty_three isotopes are radioactive. It resembles the lanthanoids + -- chemically. Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity, and should + -- be handled with care. Discovered in 1839 by C.G. Mosander. + fun Lanthanum : Class ; + fun Lanthanum_Class : SubClass Lanthanum ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Appearance unknown, however it is most likely + -- silvery_white or grey and metallic. Lawrencium is a synthetic rare_earth + -- metal. There are eight known radioisotopes, the most stable being Lr_262 + -- with a half_life of 3.6 hours. Due to the short half_life of lawrencium, + -- and its radioactivity, there are no known uses for it. Identified by + -- Albert Ghiorso in 1961 at Berkeley. It was produced by bombarding + -- californium with boron ions. The name is temporary {IUPAC} nomenclature, + -- the origin of the name comes from Ernest O. Lawrence, the inventor of the + -- cyclotron. If sufficient amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would + -- pose a radiation hazard. + fun Lawrencium : Class ; + fun Lawrencium_Class : SubClass Lawrencium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Heavy dull grey ductile metallic element, belongs to + -- group 14. Used in building construction, lead_place accumulators, bullets + -- and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, bearing metals, type metals and + -- fusible alloys. + fun Lead : Class ; + fun Lead_Class : SubClass Lead ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Socket silvery metal. First member of group 1 of + -- the periodic table. Lithium salts are used in psychomedicine. + fun Lithium : Class ; + fun Lithium_Class : SubClass Lithium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery_white rare_earth metal which is + -- relatively stable in air. It happens to be the most expensive rare_earth + -- metal. Its found with almost all rare_earth metals, but is very difficult + -- to separate from other elements. Least abundant of all natural elements. + -- Used in metal alloys, and as a catalyst in various processes. There are + -- two natural, stable isotopes, and seven radioisotopes, the most stable + -- being Lu_174 with a half_life of 3.3 years. The separation of lutetium + -- from {ytterbium} was described by Georges Urbain in 1907. It was + -- discovered at approximately the same time by Carl Auer von Welsbach. The + -- name comes from the Greek word lutetia which means Paris. + fun Lutetium : Class ; + fun Lutetium_Class : SubClass Lutetium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery metallic element belonging to group 2 of + -- the periodic table (alkaline_earth metals). It is essential for living + -- organisms, and is used in a number of light alloys. Chemically very + -- reactive, it forms a protective oxide coating when exposed to air and + -- burns with an intense white flame. It also reacts with sulphur, nitrogen + -- and the halogens. First isolated by Bussy in 1828. + fun Magnesium : Class ; + fun Magnesium_Class : SubClass Magnesium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Grey brittle metallic transition element. + -- Rather electropositive, combines with some non_metals when heated. + -- Discovered in 1774 by Scheele. + fun Manganese : Class ; + fun Manganese_Class : SubClass Manganese ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Half_life of approximately 5ms. The creation + -- of this element demonstrated that fusion techniques could indeed be used + -- to make new, heavy nuclei. Made and identified by physicists of the Heavy + -- Ion Research Laboratory, Darmstadt, West Germany in 1982. Named in honor + -- of Lise Meitner the Austrian physicist. + fun Meitnerium : Class ; + fun Meitnerium_Class : SubClass Meitnerium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. + -- Belongs to the actinoid series. Only known isotope, Md_256 has a + -- half_life of 1.3 hours. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert + -- Ghiorso and associates in 1955. Alternative name {unnilunium} has been + -- proposed. Named after the 'inventor' of the periodic table, Dmitri + -- Mendeleev. + fun Mendelevium : Class ; + fun Mendelevium_Class : SubClass Mendelevium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Heavy silvery liquid metallic element, belongs to + -- the zinc group. Used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific + -- apparatus. Less reactive than zinc and cadmium, does not displace + -- hydrogen from acids. Forms a number of complexes and organomercury + -- compounds. + fun Mercury : Class ; + fun Mercury_Class : SubClass Mercury ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery_white, hard metallic transition + -- element. It is chemically unreactive and is not affected by most acids. + -- It oxidizes at high temperatures. There are seven natural isotopes, and + -- four radioisotopes, Mo_93 being the most stable with a half_life of 3500 + -- years. Molybdenum is used in almost all high_strength steels, it has + -- nuclear applications, and is a catalyst in petroleum refining. Discovered + -- in 1778 by Carl Welhelm Scheele of Sweden. Impure metal was prepared in + -- 1782 by Peter Jacob Hjelm. The name comes from the Greek word molybdos + -- which means lead. Trace amounts of molybdenum are required for all known + -- forms of life. All molybdenum compounds should be considered highly + -- toxic, and will also cause severe birth defects. + fun Molybdenum : Class ; + fun Molybdenum_Class : SubClass Molybdenum ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft bright silvery metallic element, belongs to + -- the lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Nd_144 being the only + -- radioactive one with a half_life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. Six artificial + -- radioisotopes have been produced. The metal is used in glass works to + -- color class a shade of violet_purple and make it dichroic. One of the + -- more reactive rare_earth metals, quickly reacts with air. Used in some + -- rare_earth alloys. Neodymium is used to color the glass used in welder's + -- glasses. Neodymium is also used in very powerful, permanent magnets + -- (Nd2Fe14B). Discovered by Carl F. Auer von Welsbach in Austria in 1885 + -- by separating didymium into its elemental components {praseodymium} and + -- neodymium. The name comes from the Greek words 'neos didymos' which means + -- 'new twin'. Neodymium should be considered highly toxic, however evidence + -- would seem to show that it acts as little more than a skin and eye + -- irritant. The dust however, presents a fire and explosion hazard. + fun Neodymium : Class ; + fun Neodymium_Class : SubClass Neodymium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colourless gaseous element of group 18 on the + -- periodic table (noble gases). Neon occurs in the atmosphere, and + -- comprises 0.0018 percent of the volume of the atmosphere. It has a + -- distinct reddish glow when used in discharge tubes and neon based lamps. + -- It forms almost no chemical compounds. Neon was discovered in 1898 by Sir + -- William Ramsey and M.W. Travers. + fun Neon : Class ; + fun Neon_Class : SubClass Neon ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, + -- belongs to the actinoids. Np_237, the most stable isotope, has a + -- half_life of 2.2*10^6 years and is a by product of nuclear reactors. The + -- other known isotopes have mass numbers 229 through 236, and 238 through + -- 241. Np_236 has a half_life of 5*10^3 years. First produced by Edwin M. + -- McMillan and P.H. Abelson in 1940. + fun Neptunium : Class ; + fun Neptunium_Class : SubClass Neptunium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Malleable ductile silvery metallic transition + -- element. Discovered by A.F. Cronstedt in 1751. + fun Nickel : Class ; + fun Nickel_Class : SubClass Nickel ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft, ductile grey_blue metallic transition + -- element. Used in special steels and in welded joints to increase + -- strength. Combines with halogens and oxidizes in air at 200 degrees + -- celsius. Discovered by Charles Hatchett in 1801 and isolated by + -- Blomstrand in 1864. Called {columbium} originally. + fun Niobium : Class ; + fun Niobium_Class : SubClass Niobium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colourless, gaseous element which belongs to + -- group 15 of the periodic table. Constitutes ~78 percent of the atmosphere + -- and is an essential part of the ecosystem. Nitrogen for industrial + -- purposes is acquired by the fractional distillation of liquid air. + -- Chemically inactive, reactive generally only at high temperatures or in + -- electrical discharges. It was discovered in 1772 by D. Rutherford. + fun Nitrogen : Class ; + fun Nitrogen_Class : SubClass Nitrogen ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs + -- to the actinoids. Seven known isotopes exist, the most stable being + -- No_254 with a half_life of 255 seconds. First identified with certainty + -- by Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1966. {Unnilbium} has been + -- proposed as an alternative name. + fun Nobelium : Class ; + fun Nobelium_Class : SubClass Nobelium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Hard blue_white metallic transition element. Found + -- with platinum and used in some alloys with platinum and iridium. + fun Osmium : Class ; + fun Osmium_Class : SubClass Osmium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- A colourless, odourless gaseous element belonging + -- to group 16 of the periodic table. It is the most abundant element + -- present in the earth's crust. It also makes up 20.8 percent of the + -- Earth's atmosphere. For industrial purposes, it is separated from liquid + -- air by fractional distillation. It is used in high temperature welding, + -- and in breathing. It commonly comes in the form of Oxygen, but is found + -- as Ozone in the upper atmosphere. It was discovered by Priestley in + -- 1774. + fun Oxygen : Class ; + fun Oxygen_Class : SubClass Oxygen ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft white ductile transition element. Found + -- with some copper and nickel ores. Does not react with oxygen at normal + -- temperatures. Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid. Discovered in 1803 + -- by W.H. Wollaston. + fun Palladium : Class ; + fun Palladium_Class : SubClass Palladium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Non_metallic element belonging to group 15 of + -- the periodic table. Has a multiple allotropic forms. Essential element + -- for living organisms. It was discovered by Brandt in 1669. + fun Phosphorus : Class ; + fun Phosphorus_Class : SubClass Phosphorus ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Attractive greyish_white metal. When pure, it is + -- malleable and ductile. Does not oxidize in air, insoluble in hydrochloric + -- and nitric acid. Corroded by halogens, cyandies, sulphur and alkalis. + -- {Hydrogen} and {oxygen} react explosively in the presence of platinum. + -- There are six stable isotopes and three radioisotopes, the most stable + -- being Pt_193 with a half_life of 60 years. Platinum is used in jewelry, + -- laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, and anti_pollution + -- devices in cars. PtCl2(NH3)2 is used to treat some forms of cancer. + -- Platinum_{cobalt} alloys have magnetic properties. It is also used in the + -- definition of the Standard Hydrogen Electrode. Discovered by Antonio de + -- Ulloa in South America in 1735. The name comes from the Spanish word + -- platina which means silver. Platinum metal is generally not a health + -- concern due to its unreactivity, however platinum compounds should be + -- considered highly toxic. + fun Platinum : Class ; + fun Platinum_Class : SubClass Platinum ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Dense silvery radioactive metallic transuranic + -- element, belongs to the actinoids. Pu_244 is the most stable isotope with + -- a half_life of 7.6*10^7 years. Thirteen isotopes are known. Pu_239 is + -- the most important, it undergoes nuclear fission with slow neutrons and is + -- hence important to nuclear weapons and reactors. Plutonium production is + -- monitored down to the gram to prevent military misuse. First produced by + -- Gleen T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, J.W. Kennedy and A.C. Wahl in + -- 1940. + fun Plutonium : Class ; + fun Plutonium_Class : SubClass Plutonium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Rare radioactive metallic element, belongs to + -- group 16 of the periodic table. Over 30 known isotopes exist, the most of + -- all elements. Po_209 has a half_life of 103 years. Possible uses in + -- heating spacecraft. Discovered by Marie Curie in 1898 in a sample of + -- pitchblende. + fun Polonium : Class ; + fun Polonium_Class : SubClass Polonium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element belonging to group + -- 1 of the periodic table (alkali metals). Occurs naturally in seawater and + -- a many minerals. Highly reactive, chemically, it resembles sodium in its + -- behavior and compounds. Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1807. + fun Potassium : Class ; + fun Potassium_Class : SubClass Potassium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. Only natural isotope is Pr_141 which is not radioactive. + -- Fourteen radioactive isotopes have been artificially produced. Used in + -- rare_earth alloys. Discovered in 1885 by C.A. von Welsbach. + fun Praseodymium : Class ; + fun Praseodymium_Class : SubClass Praseodymium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. Pm_147, the only natural isotope, is radioactive and has a + -- half_life of 252 years. Eighteen radioisotopes have been produced, but + -- all have very short half_lives. Found only in nuclear decay waste. + -- Pm_147 is of interest as a beta_decay source, however Pm_146 and Pm_148 + -- have to be removed from it first, as they generate gamma radiation. + -- Discovered by J.A. Marinsky, L.E. Glendenin and C.D. Coryell in + -- 1947. + fun Promethium : Class ; + fun Promethium_Class : SubClass Promethium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic element, belongs to the + -- actinoids. The most stable isotope, Pa_231 has a half_life of 2.43*10^4 + -- years. At least 10 other radioactive isotopes are known. No practical + -- applications are known. Discovered in 1917 by Lise Meitner and Otto + -- Hahn. + fun Protactinium : Class ; + fun Protactinium_Class : SubClass Protactinium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs + -- to group 2 of the periodic table. Most stable isotope, Ra_226 has a + -- half_life of 1602 years, which decays into radon. Isolated from + -- pitchblende in 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie. + fun Radium : Class ; + fun Radium_Class : SubClass Radium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colorless radioactive gaseous element, belongs to + -- the noble gases. Of the twenty known isotopes, the most stable is Rn_222 + -- with a half_life of 3.8 days. Formed by the radioactive decay of + -- {Radium}_226. Radon itself decays into {polonium}. Used in radiotherapy. + -- As a noble gas, it is effectively inert, though radon fluoride has been + -- synthesized. First isolated in 1908 by Ramsey and Gray. + fun Radon : Class ; + fun Radon_Class : SubClass Radon ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery_white metallic transition element. + -- Obtained as a by_product of molybdenum refinement. Rhenium_molybdenum + -- alloys are superconducting. + fun Rhenium : Class ; + fun Rhenium_Class : SubClass Rhenium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery white metallic transition element. Found + -- with platinum and used in some platinum alloys. Not attacked by acids, + -- dissolves only in aqua regia. Discovered in 1803 by W.H. Wollaston. + fun Rhodium : Class ; + fun Rhodium_Class : SubClass Rhodium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 1 + -- of the periodic table. Rb_97, the naturally occurring isotope, is + -- radioactive. It is highly reactive, with properties similar to other + -- elements in group 1, like igniting spontaneously in air. Discovered + -- spectroscopically in 1861 by W. Bunsen and G.R. Kirchoff. + fun Rubidium : Class ; + fun Rubidium_Class : SubClass Rubidium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Hard white metallic transition element. Found + -- with platinum, used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. Dissolves in + -- fused alkalis, and is not attacked by acids. Reacts with halogens and + -- oxygen at high temperatures. Isolated in 1844 by K.K. Klaus. + fun Ruthenium : Class ; + fun Ruthenium_Class : SubClass Ruthenium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Sm_147 is the only radioisotope, and + -- has a half_life of 2.5*10^11 years. Used for making special alloys needed + -- in the production of nuclear reactors. Also used as a neutron absorber. + -- Small quantities of samarium oxide is used in special optical glasses. + -- The largest use of the element is its ferromagnetic alloy which produces + -- permanent magnets that are five times stronger than magnets produced by + -- any other material. Discovered by Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudran in + -- 1879. + fun Samarium : Class ; + fun Samarium_Class : SubClass Samarium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Rare soft silvery metallic element belonging to + -- group 3 of the periodic table. There are ten isotopes, nine of which are + -- radioactive and have short half_lives. Predicted in 1869 by Mendeleev, + -- isolated by Nilson in 1879. + fun Scandium : Class ; + fun Scandium_Class : SubClass Scandium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Metalloid element, belongs to group 16 of the + -- periodic table. Multiple allotropic forms exist. Chemically resembles + -- sulphur. Discovered in 1817 by Jons J. Berzelius. + fun Selenium : Class ; + fun Selenium_Class : SubClass Selenium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Metalloid element belonging to group 14 of the + -- periodic table. It is the second most abundant element in the Earth's + -- crust, making up 25.7 percent of it by weight. Chemically less reactive + -- than carbon. First identified by Lavoisier in 1787 and first isolated in + -- 1823 by Berzelius. + fun Silicon : Class ; + fun Silicon_Class : SubClass Silicon ElementalSubstance ; + + -- White lustrous soft metallic transition element. + -- Found in both its elemental form and in minerals. Used in jewellery, + -- tableware and so on. Less reactive than silver, chemically. + fun Silver : Class ; + fun Silver_Class : SubClass Silver ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft silvery reactive element belonging to group 1 + -- of the periodic table (alkali metals). It is highly reactive, oxidizing + -- in air and reacting violently with water, forcing it to be kept under oil. + -- It was first isolated by Humphrey Davy in 1807. + fun Sodium : Class ; + fun Sodium_Class : SubClass Sodium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft yellowish metallic element, belongs to + -- group 2 of the periodic table. Highly reactive chemically. Sr_90 is + -- present in radioactive fallout and has a half_life of 28 years. + -- Discovered in 1798 by Klaproth and Hope, isolated in 1808 by Humphry + -- Davy. + fun Strontium : Class ; + fun Strontium_Class : SubClass Strontium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Yellow, nonmetallic element belonging to group 16 + -- of the periodic table. It is an essential element in living organisms, + -- needed in the amino acids cysteine and methionine, and hence in many + -- proteins. Absorbed by plants from the soil as sulphate ion. + fun Sulphur : Class ; + fun Sulphur_Class : SubClass Sulphur ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Heavy blue_grey metallic transition element. + -- Ta_181 is a stable isotope, and Ta_180 is a radioactive isotope, with a + -- half_life in excess of 10^7 years. Used in surgery as it is unreactive. + -- Forms a passive oxide layer in air. Identified in 1802 by Ekeberg and + -- isolated in 1820 by Jons J. Berzelius. + fun Tantalum : Class ; + fun Tantalum_Class : SubClass Tantalum ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive metallic transition element. Can + -- be detected in some stars and the fission products of uranium. First made + -- by Perrier and Segre by bombarding molybdenum with deutrons, giving them + -- Tc_97. Tc_99 is the most stable isotope with a half_life of 2.6*10^6 + -- years. Sixteen isotopes are known. Organic technetium compounds are used + -- in bone imaging. Chemical properties are intermediate between rhenium and + -- manganese. + fun Technetium : Class ; + fun Technetium_Class : SubClass Technetium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery metalloid element of group 16. Eight + -- natural isotopes, nine radioactive isotopes. Used in semiconductors and + -- to a degree in some steels. Chemistry is similar to {sulphur}. + -- Discovered in 1782 by Franz Miller. + fun Tellurium : Class ; + fun Tellurium_Class : SubClass Tellurium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery metallic element belonging to the + -- lanthanoids. Tb_159 is the only stable isotope, there are seventeen + -- artificial isotopes. Discovered by G.G. Mosander in 1843. + fun Terbium : Class ; + fun Terbium_Class : SubClass Terbium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Pure, unreacted thallium appears silvery_white + -- and exhibits a metallic lustre. Upon reacting with air, it begins to turn + -- bluish_grey and looks like lead. It is very malleable, and can be cut + -- with a knife. There are two stable isotopes, and four radioisotopes, + -- Tl_204 being the most stable with a half_life of 3.78 years. Thallium + -- sulphate was used as a rodenticide. Thallium sulphine's conductivity + -- changes with exposure to infrared light, this gives it a use in infrared + -- detectors. Discovered by Sir William Crookes via spectroscopy. Its name + -- comes from the Greek word thallos, which means green twig. Thallium and + -- its compounds are toxic and can cause cancer. + fun Thallium : Class ; + fun Thallium_Class : SubClass Thallium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Grey radioactive metallic element. Belongs to + -- actinoids. Found in monazite sand in Brazil, India and the US. + -- Thorium_232 has a half_life of 1.39x10^10 years. Can be used as a nuclear + -- fuel for breeder reactors. Thorium_232 captures slow {neutron}s and + -- breeds uranium_233. Discovered by Jons J. Berzelius in 1829. + fun Thorium : Class ; + fun Thorium_Class : SubClass Thorium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft grey metallic element that belongs to the + -- lanthanoids. One natural isotope exists, Tm_169, and seventeen artificial + -- isotopes have been produced. No known uses for the element. Discovered + -- in 1879 by Per Theodor Cleve. + fun Thulium : Class ; + fun Thulium_Class : SubClass Thulium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery malleable metallic element belonging to group + -- 14 of the periodic table. Twenty_six isotopes are known, five of which + -- are radioactive. Chemically reactive. Combines directly with chlorine + -- and oxygen and displaces hydrogen from dilute acids. + fun Tin : Class ; + fun Tin_Class : SubClass Tin ElementalSubstance ; + + -- White metallic transition element. Occurs in + -- numerous minerals. Used in strong, light corrosion_resistant alloys. + -- Forms a passive oxide coating when exposed to air. First discovered by + -- Gregor in 1789. + fun Titanium : Class ; + fun Titanium_Class : SubClass Titanium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- White or grey metallic transition element, + -- formerly called {wolfram}. Forms a protective oxide in air and can be + -- oxidized at high temperature. First isolated by Jose and Fausto de + -- Elhuyer in 1783. + fun Tungsten : Class ; + fun Tungsten_Class : SubClass Tungsten ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Half_life of approximately 10ms. Reported in + -- 1994 by German researchers at Darmstadt, Germany. + fun Unnildecium : Class ; + fun Unnildecium_Class : SubClass Unnildecium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Half_life of 0.9 +/_ 0.2 s. Discovered by the + -- Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in June of 1974. + -- Its existence was confirmed by the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and + -- Livermore National Laboratory in September of 1974. + fun Unnilhexium : Class ; + fun Unnilhexium_Class : SubClass Unnilhexium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive transition metal. + fun Unniloctium : Class ; + fun Unniloctium_Class : SubClass Unniloctium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive transactinide element. Half_life + -- of 1.6s. Discovered in 1970 by Berkeley researchers. So far, seven + -- isotopes have been discovered. + fun Unnilpentium : Class ; + fun Unnilpentium_Class : SubClass Unnilpentium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive transactinide element. Expected + -- to have similar chemical properties to those displayed by hafnium. Rf_260 + -- was discovered by the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) + -- in 1964. Researchers at Berkeley discovered Unq_257 and Unq_258 in + -- 1964. + fun Unnilquadium : Class ; + fun Unnilquadium_Class : SubClass Unnilquadium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Radioactive transition metal. Half_life of + -- approximately 1/500 s. Discovered by the Joint Institute for Nuclear + -- Research at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in 1976. Confirmed by West German physicists + -- at the Heavy Ion Research Laboratory at Darmstadt. + fun Unnilseptium : Class ; + fun Unnilseptium_Class : SubClass Unnilseptium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- White radioactive metallic element belonging to + -- the actinoids. Three natural isotopes, U_238, U_235 and U_234. + -- Uranium_235 is used as the fuel for nuclear reactors and weapons. + -- Discovered by Martin H. Klaproth in 1789. + fun Uranium : Class ; + fun Uranium_Class : SubClass Uranium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Soft and ductile, bright white metal. Good + -- resistance to corrosion by alkalis, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. It + -- oxidizes readily about 933K. There are two naturally occurring isotopes + -- of vanadium, and 5 radioisotopes, V_49 having the longest half_life at 337 + -- days. Vanadium has nuclear applications, the foil is used in cladding + -- titanium to steel, and vanadium_gallium tape is used to produce a + -- superconductive magnet. Originally discovered by Andres Manuel del Rio of + -- Mexico City in 1801. His discovery went unheeded, however, and in 1820, + -- Nils Gabriel Sefstron of Sweden rediscovered it. Metallic vanadium was + -- isolated by Henry Enfield Roscoe in 1867. The name vanadium comes from + -- {Vanadis}, a goddess of Scandinavian mythology. Silvery_white metallic + -- transition element. Vanadium is essential to {ascidian}s. Rats and + -- chickens are also known to require it. Metal powder is a fire hazard, and + -- vanadium compounds should be considered highly toxic. May cause lung + -- cancer if inhaled. + fun Vanadium : Class ; + fun Vanadium_Class : SubClass Vanadium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Colourless, odourless gas belonging to group 18 on + -- the periodic table (the noble gases.) Nine natural isotopes and seven + -- radioactive isotopes are known. Xenon was part of the first noble_gas + -- compound synthesized. Several others involving Xenon have been found + -- since then. Xenon was discovered by Ramsey and Travers in 1898. + fun Xenon : Class ; + fun Xenon_Class : SubClass Xenon ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery metallic element of the lanthanoids. + -- Seven natural isotopes and ten artificial isotopes are known. Used in + -- certain steels. Discovered by J.D.G. Marignac in 1878. + fun Ytterbium : Class ; + fun Ytterbium_Class : SubClass Ytterbium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Silvery_grey metallic element of group 3 on the + -- periodic table. Found in uranium ores. The only natural isotope is Y_89, + -- there are 14 other artificial isotopes. Chemically resembles the + -- lanthanoids. Stable in the air below 400 degrees, celsius. Discovered in + -- 1828 by Friedrich Wohler. + fun Yttrium : Class ; + fun Yttrium_Class : SubClass Yttrium ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Blue_white metallic element. Occurs in multiple + -- compounds naturally. Five stable isotopes are six radioactive isotopes + -- have been found. Chemically a reactive metal, combines with oxygen and + -- other non_metals, reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen. + fun Zinc : Class ; + fun Zinc_Class : SubClass Zinc ElementalSubstance ; + + -- Grey_white metallic transition element. Five + -- natural isotopes and six radioactive isotopes are known. Used in nuclear + -- reactors for a {neutron} absorber. Discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, + -- isolated in 1824 by Berzelius. + fun Zirconium : Class ; + fun Zirconium_Class : SubClass Zirconium ElementalSubstance ; + +} -- cgit v1.2.3