From 455d9558417a759fae3ccbe5cde5c9f5064a08d2 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: krasimir Date: Sun, 6 Jun 2010 11:06:44 +0000 Subject: changes in SUMO: formatting and fixes for lots of lots of small problems --- examples/SUMO/elements.gf | 931 ---------------------------------------------- 1 file changed, 931 deletions(-) delete mode 100644 examples/SUMO/elements.gf (limited to 'examples/SUMO/elements.gf') diff --git a/examples/SUMO/elements.gf b/examples/SUMO/elements.gf deleted file mode 100644 index 5a4d70510..000000000 --- a/examples/SUMO/elements.gf +++ /dev/null @@ -1,931 +0,0 @@ -abstract elements = open Merge in { - - - - --- Silvery radioactive metallic element, belongs to --- group 3 of the periodic table. The most stable isotope, Ac_227, has a --- half_life of 217 years. Ac_228 (half_life of 6.13 hours) also occurs in --- nature. There are 22 other artificial isotopes, all radioactive and --- having very short half_lives. Chemistry similar to lanthanum. Used as a --- source of alpha particles. Discovered by A. Debierne in 1899. -fun Actinium : Class ; -fun Actinium_Class : SubClass Actinium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery_white lustrous metallic element of group --- 3 of the periodic table. Highly reactive but protected by a thin --- transparent layer of the oxide which quickly forms in air. There are many --- alloys of aluminum, as well as a good number of industrial uses. Makes up --- 8.1 percent of the Earth's crust, by weight. Isolated in 1825 by H.C. --- Oersted. -fun Aluminum : Class ; -fun Aluminum_Class : SubClass Aluminum ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, --- belongs to the actinoids. Ten known isotopes. Am_243 is the most stable --- isotope, with a half_life of 7.95*10^3 years. Discovered by Glenn T. --- Seaborg and associates in 1945, it was obtained by bombarding --- {uranium}_238 with alpha particles. -fun Americium : Class ; -fun Americium_Class : SubClass Americium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Element of group 15. Multiple allotropic forms. --- The stable form of antimony is a blue_white metal. Yellow and black --- antimony are unstable non_metals. Used in flame_proofing, paints, --- ceramics, enamels, and rubber. Attacked by oxidizing acids and halogens. --- First reported by Tholden in 1450. -fun Antimony : Class ; -fun Antimony_Class : SubClass Antimony ElementalSubstance ; - --- Monatomic noble gas. Makes up 0.93 percent of the --- air. Colourless, odorless. Is inert and has no true compounds. Lord --- Rayleigh and Sir william Ramsey identified argon in 1894. -fun Argon : Class ; -fun Argon_Class : SubClass Argon ElementalSubstance ; - --- Metalloid element of group 15. There are three --- allotropes, yellow, black, and grey. Reacts with halogens, concentrated --- oxidizing acids and hot alkalis. Albertus Magnus is believed to have been --- the first to isolate the element in 1250. -fun Arsenic : Class ; -fun Arsenic_Class : SubClass Arsenic ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive halogen element. Occurs naturally --- from uranium and thorium decay. At least 20 known isotopes. At_210, the --- most stable, has a half_life of 8.3 hours. Synthesized by nuclear --- bombardment in 1940 by D.R. Corson, K.R. MacKenzie and E. Segre at the --- University of California. -fun Astatine : Class ; -fun Astatine_Class : SubClass Astatine ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery_white reactive element, belonging to group --- 2 of the periodic table. Soluble barium compounds are extremely --- poisonous. Identified in 1774 by Karl Scheele and extracted in 1808 by --- Humphry Davy. -fun Barium : Class ; -fun Barium_Class : SubClass Barium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. --- Belongs to actinoid series. Eight known isotopes, the most common Bk_247, --- has a half_life of 1.4*10^3 years. First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg --- and associates in 1949 by bombarding americium_241 with alpha --- particles. -fun Berkelium : Class ; -fun Berkelium_Class : SubClass Berkelium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Grey metallic element of group 2 of the periodic --- table. Is toxic and can cause severe lung diseases and dermatitis. Shows --- high covalent character. It was isolated independently by F. Wohler and --- A.A. Bussy in 1828. -fun Beryllium : Class ; -fun Beryllium_Class : SubClass Beryllium ElementalSubstance ; - --- White crystalline metal with a pink tinge, belongs --- to group 15. Most diamagnetic of all metals and has the lowest thermal --- conductivity of all the elements except mercury. Lead_free bismuth --- compounds are used in cosmetics and medical procedures. Burns in the air --- and produces a blue flame. In 1753, C.G. Junine first demonstrated that --- it was different from lead. -fun Bismuth : Class ; -fun Bismuth_Class : SubClass Bismuth ElementalSubstance ; - --- An element of group 13 of the periodic table. There --- are two allotropes, amorphous boron is a brown power, but metallic boron --- is black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale) and a bad --- conductor in room temperatures. It is never found free in nature. --- Boron_10 is used in nuclear reactor control rods and shields. It was --- discovered in 1808 by Sir Humphry Davy and by J.L. Gay_Lussac and L.J. --- Thenard. -fun Boron : Class ; -fun Boron_Class : SubClass Boron ElementalSubstance ; - --- Halogen element. Red volatile liquid at room --- temperature. Its reactivity is somewhere between chlorine and iodine. --- Harmful to human tissue in a liquid state, the vapour irritates eyes and --- throat. Discovered in 1826 by Antoine Balard. -fun Bromine : Class ; -fun Bromine_Class : SubClass Bromine ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft bluish metal belonging to group 12 of the --- periodic table. Extremely toxic even in low concentrations. Chemically --- similar to zinc, but lends itself to more complex compounds. Discovered --- in 1817 by F. Stromeyer. -fun Cadmium : Class ; -fun Cadmium_Class : SubClass Cadmium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery_white metallic element belonging to --- group 1 of the periodic table. One of the three metals which are liquid --- at room temperature. Cs_133 is the natural, and only stable, isotope. --- Fifteen other radioisotopes exist. Caesium reacts explosively with cold --- water, and ice at temperatures above 157K. Caesium hydroxide is the --- strongest base known. Caesium is the most electropositive, most alkaline --- and has the least ionization potential of all the elements. Known uses --- include the basis of atomic clocks, catalyst for the hydrogenation of some --- organic compounds, and in photoelectric cells. Caesium was discovered by --- Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen in Germany in 1860 spectroscopically. --- Its identification was based upon the bright blue lines in its spectrum. --- The name comes from the latin word caesius, which means sky blue. Caesium --- should be considered highly toxic. Some of the radioisotopes are even --- more toxic. -fun Caesium : Class ; -fun Caesium_Class : SubClass Caesium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft grey metallic element belonging to group 2 of --- the periodic table. Used a reducing agent in the extraction of thorium, --- zirconium and uranium. Essential element for living organisms. -fun Calcium : Class ; -fun Calcium_Class : SubClass Calcium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. --- Belongs to actinoid series. Cf_251 has a half life of about 700 years. --- Nine isotopes are known. Cf_252 is an intense {neutron} source, which --- makes it an intense {neutron} source and gives it a use in {neutron} --- activation analysis and a possible use as a radiation source in medicine. --- First produced by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in 1950. -fun Californium : Class ; -fun Californium_Class : SubClass Californium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Carbon is a member of group 14 of the periodic --- table. It has three allotropic forms of it, diamonds, graphite and --- fullerite. Carbon_14 is commonly used in radioactive dating. Carbon --- occurs in all organic life and is the basis of organic chemistry. Carbon --- has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself, --- and a wide variety of other elements. -fun Carbon : Class ; -fun Carbon_Class : SubClass Carbon ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery metallic element, belongs to the --- lanthanoids. Four natural isotopes exist, and fifteen radioactive --- isotopes have been identified. Used in some rare_earth alloys. The --- oxidized form is used in the glass industry. Discovered by Martin .H. --- Klaproth in 1803. -fun Cerium : Class ; -fun Cerium_Class : SubClass Cerium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Halogen element. Poisonous greenish_yellow gas. --- Occurs widely in nature as sodium chloride in seawater. Reacts directly --- with many elements and compounds, strong oxidizing agent. Discovered by --- Karl Scheele in 1774. Humphrey David confirmed it as an element in --- 1810. -fun Chlorine : Class ; -fun Chlorine_Class : SubClass Chlorine ElementalSubstance ; - --- Hard silvery transition element. Used in --- decorative electroplating. Discovered in 1797 by Vauquelin. -fun Chromium : Class ; -fun Chromium_Class : SubClass Chromium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Light grey transition element. Some meteorites --- contain small amounts of metallic cobalt. Generally alloyed for use. --- Mammals require small amounts of cobalt salts. Cobalt_60, an artificially --- produced radioactive isotope of Cobalt is an important radioactive tracer --- and cancer_treatment agent. Discovered by G. Brandt in 1737. -fun Cobalt : Class ; -fun Cobalt_Class : SubClass Cobalt ElementalSubstance ; - --- Red_brown transition element. Known by the Romans --- as 'cuprum.' Extracted and used for thousands of years. Malleable, --- ductile and an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. When in moist --- conditions, a greenish layer forms on the outside. -fun Copper : Class ; -fun Copper_Class : SubClass Copper ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. Belongs --- to actinoid series. Nine known isotopes, Cm_247 has a half_life of --- 1.64*10^7 years. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg and associates in --- 1944, first produced by L.B. Werner and I. Perlman in 1947 by bombarding --- americium_241 with {neutron}s. Named for Marie Curie. -fun Curium : Class ; -fun Curium_Class : SubClass Curium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Metallic with a bright silvery_white lustre. --- Dysprosium belongs to the lanthanoids. It is relatively stable in air at --- room temperatures, it will however dissolve in mineral acids, evolving --- hydrogen. It is found in from rare_earth minerals. There are seven --- natural isotopes of dysprosium, and eight radioisotopes, Dy_154 being the --- most stable with a half_life of 3*10^6 years. Dysprosium is used as a --- neutron absorber in nuclear fission reactions, and in compact disks. It --- was discovered by Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1886 in France. Its --- name comes from the Greek word dysprositos, which means hard to obtain. -fun Dysprosium : Class ; -fun Dysprosium_Class : SubClass Dysprosium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Appearance is unknown, however it is most --- probably metallic and silver or gray in color. Radioactive metallic --- transuranic element belonging to the actinoids. Es_254 has the longest --- half_life of the eleven known isotopes at 270 days. First identified by --- Albert Ghiorso and associates in the debris of the 1952 hydrogen bomb --- explosion. In 1961 the first microgram quantities of Es_232 were --- separated. While einsteinium never exists naturally, if a sufficient --- amount was assembled, it would pose a radiation hazard. -fun Einsteinium : Class ; -fun Einsteinium_Class : SubClass Einsteinium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element which belongs to the --- lanthanoids. Six natural isotopes that are stable. Twelve artificial --- isotopes are known. Used in nuclear technology as a neutron absorber. It --- is being investigated for other possible uses. Discovered by Carl G. --- Mosander in 1843. -fun Erbium : Class ; -fun Erbium_Class : SubClass Erbium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the --- lanthanoids. Eu_151 and Eu_153 are the only two stable isotopes, both of --- which are {neutron} absorbers. Discovered in 1889 by Sir William --- Crookes. -fun Europium : Class ; -fun Europium_Class : SubClass Europium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs --- to the actinoids. Ten known isotopes, most stable is Fm_257 with a --- half_life of 10 days. First identified by Albert Ghiorso and associates --- in the debris of the first hydrogen_bomb explosion in 1952. -fun Fermium : Class ; -fun Fermium_Class : SubClass Fermium ElementalSubstance ; - --- A poisonous pale yellow gaseous element belonging --- to group 17 of the periodic table (The halogens). It is the most --- chemically reactive and electronegative element. It is highly dangerous, --- causing severe chemical burns on contact with flesh. Fluorine was --- identified by Scheele in 1771 and first isolated by Moissan in 1886. -fun Fluorine : Class ; -fun Fluorine_Class : SubClass Fluorine ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive element, belongs to group 1 of the --- periodic table. Found in uranium and thorium ores. The 22 known isotopes --- are all radioactive, with the most stable being Fr_223. Its existence was --- confirmed in 1939 by Marguerite Perey. -fun Francium : Class ; -fun Francium_Class : SubClass Francium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element belonging to the --- lanthanoids. Seven natural, stable isotopes are known in addition to --- eleven artificial isotopes. Gd_155 and Gd_157 and the best neutron --- absorbers of all elements. Gadolinium compounds are used in electronics. --- Discovered by J.C.G Marignac in 1880. -fun Gadolinium : Class ; -fun Gadolinium_Class : SubClass Gadolinium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 13 --- of the periodic table. The two stable isotopes are Ga_69 and Ga_71. --- Eight radioactive isotopes are known, all having short half_lives. --- Gallium Arsenide is used as a semiconductor. Corrodes most other metals --- by diffusing into their lattice. First identified by Francois Lecoq de --- Boisbaudran in 1875. -fun Gallium : Class ; -fun Gallium_Class : SubClass Gallium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Lustrous hard metalloid element, belongs to --- group 14 of the periodic table. Forms a large number of organometallic --- compounds. Predicted by Mendeleev in 1871, it was actually found in 1886 --- by Winkler. -fun Germanium : Class ; -fun Germanium_Class : SubClass Germanium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Gold is gold colored. It is the most malleable and --- ductile metal known. There is only one stable isotope of gold, and five --- radioisotopes of gold, Au_195 being the most stable with a half_life of --- 186 days. Gold is used as a monetary standard, in jewelry, dentistry, --- electronics. Au_198 is used in treating cancer and some other medical --- conditions. Gold has been known to exist as far back as 2600 BC. Gold --- comes from the Anglo_Saxon word gold. Its symbol, Au, comes from the --- Latin word aurum, which means gold. Gold is not particularly toxic, --- however it is known to cause damage to the liver and kidneys in some. -fun Gold : Class ; -fun Gold_Class : SubClass Gold ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery lustrous metallic transition element. --- Used in tungsten alloys in filaments and electrodes, also acts as a --- neutron absorber. First reported by Urbain in 1911, existence was finally --- established in 1923 by D. Coster, G.C. de Hevesy in 1923. -fun Hafnium : Class ; -fun Hafnium_Class : SubClass Hafnium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colourless, odourless gaseous nonmetallic element. --- Belongs to group 18 of the periodic table. Lowest boiling point of all --- elements and can only be solidified under pressure. Chemically inert, no --- known compounds. Discovered in the solar spectrum in 1868 by Lockyer. -fun Helium : Class ; -fun Helium_Class : SubClass Helium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Relatively soft and malleable silvery_white --- metallic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature. It --- oxidizes in moist air and at high temperatures. It belongs to the --- lanthanoids. A rare_earth metal, it is found in the minerals monazite and --- gadolinite. It possesses unusual magnetic properties. One natural --- isotope, Ho_165 exists, six radioisotopes exist, the most stable being --- Ho_163 with a half_life of 4570 years. Holmium is used in some metal --- alloys, it is also said to stimulate the metabolism. Discovered by Per --- Theodor Cleve and J.L. Soret in Switzerland in 1879. The name homium --- comes from the Greek word Holmia which means Sweden. While all holmium --- compounds should be considered highly toxic, initial evidence seems to --- indicate that they do not pose much danger. The metal's dust however, is --- a fire hazard. -fun Holmium : Class ; -fun Holmium_Class : SubClass Holmium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colourless, odourless gaseous chemical element. --- Lightest and most abundant element in the universe. Present in water and --- in all organic compounds. Chemically reacts with most elements. --- Discovered by Henry Cavendish in 1776. -fun Hydrogen : Class ; -fun Hydrogen_Class : SubClass Hydrogen ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery element belonging to group 13 of the --- periodic table. The most common natural isotope is In_115, which has a --- half_life of 6*10^4 years. Five other radioisotopes exist. Discovered in --- 1863 by Reich and Richter. -fun Indium : Class ; -fun Indium_Class : SubClass Indium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Dark violet nonmetallic element, belongs to group --- 17 of the periodic table. Insoluble in water. Required as a trace --- element for living organisms. One stable isotope, I_127 exists, in --- addition to fourteen radioactive isotopes. Chemically the least reactive --- of the halogens, and the most electropositive metallic halogen. --- Discovered in 1812 by Courtois. -fun Iodine : Class ; -fun Iodine_Class : SubClass Iodine ElementalSubstance ; - --- Very hard and brittle, silvery metallic transition --- element. It has a yellowish cast to it. Salts of iridium are highly --- colored. It is the most corrosion resistant metal known, not attacked by --- any acid, but is attacked by molten salts. There are two natural isotopes --- of iridium, and 4 radioisotopes, the most stable being Ir_192 with a --- half_life of 73.83 days. Ir_192 decays into {platinum}, while the other --- radioisotopes decay into {osmium}. Iridium is used in high temperature --- apparatus, electrical contacts, and as a hardening agent for platinum. --- Discovered in 1803 by Smithson Tennant in England. The name comes from --- the Greek word iris, which means rainbow. Iridium metal is generally --- non_toxic due to its relative unreactivity, but iridium compounds should --- be considered highly toxic. -fun Iridium : Class ; -fun Iridium_Class : SubClass Iridium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery malleable and ductile metallic transition --- element. Has nine isotopes and is the fourth most abundant element in the --- earth's crust. Required by living organisms as a trace element (used in --- hemoglobin in humans.) Quite reactive, oxidizes in moist air, displaces --- hydrogen from dilute acids and combines with nonmetallic elements. -fun Iron : Class ; -fun Iron_Class : SubClass Iron ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colorless gaseous element, belongs to the noble --- gases. Occurs in the air, 0.0001 percent by volume. It can be extracted --- from liquid air by fractional distillation. Generally not isolated, but --- used with other inert gases in fluorescent lamps. Five natural isotopes, --- and five radioactive isotopes. Kr_85, the most stable radioactive --- isotope, has a half_life of 10.76 years and is produced in fission --- reactors. Practically inert, though known to form compounds with --- {fluorine}. -fun Krypton : Class ; -fun Krypton_Class : SubClass Krypton ElementalSubstance ; - --- (From the Greek word lanthanein, to line hidden) --- Silvery metallic element belonging to group 3 of the periodic table and --- oft considered to be one of the lanthanoids. Found in some rare_earth --- minerals. Twenty_five natural isotopes exist. La_139 which is stable, --- and La_138 which has a half_life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. The other --- twenty_three isotopes are radioactive. It resembles the lanthanoids --- chemically. Lanthanum has a low to moderate level of toxicity, and should --- be handled with care. Discovered in 1839 by C.G. Mosander. -fun Lanthanum : Class ; -fun Lanthanum_Class : SubClass Lanthanum ElementalSubstance ; - --- Appearance unknown, however it is most likely --- silvery_white or grey and metallic. Lawrencium is a synthetic rare_earth --- metal. There are eight known radioisotopes, the most stable being Lr_262 --- with a half_life of 3.6 hours. Due to the short half_life of lawrencium, --- and its radioactivity, there are no known uses for it. Identified by --- Albert Ghiorso in 1961 at Berkeley. It was produced by bombarding --- californium with boron ions. The name is temporary {IUPAC} nomenclature, --- the origin of the name comes from Ernest O. Lawrence, the inventor of the --- cyclotron. If sufficient amounts of lawrencium were produced, it would --- pose a radiation hazard. -fun Lawrencium : Class ; -fun Lawrencium_Class : SubClass Lawrencium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Heavy dull grey ductile metallic element, belongs to --- group 14. Used in building construction, lead_place accumulators, bullets --- and shot, and is part of solder, pewter, bearing metals, type metals and --- fusible alloys. -fun Lead : Class ; -fun Lead_Class : SubClass Lead ElementalSubstance ; - --- Socket silvery metal. First member of group 1 of --- the periodic table. Lithium salts are used in psychomedicine. -fun Lithium : Class ; -fun Lithium_Class : SubClass Lithium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery_white rare_earth metal which is --- relatively stable in air. It happens to be the most expensive rare_earth --- metal. Its found with almost all rare_earth metals, but is very difficult --- to separate from other elements. Least abundant of all natural elements. --- Used in metal alloys, and as a catalyst in various processes. There are --- two natural, stable isotopes, and seven radioisotopes, the most stable --- being Lu_174 with a half_life of 3.3 years. The separation of lutetium --- from {ytterbium} was described by Georges Urbain in 1907. It was --- discovered at approximately the same time by Carl Auer von Welsbach. The --- name comes from the Greek word lutetia which means Paris. -fun Lutetium : Class ; -fun Lutetium_Class : SubClass Lutetium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery metallic element belonging to group 2 of --- the periodic table (alkaline_earth metals). It is essential for living --- organisms, and is used in a number of light alloys. Chemically very --- reactive, it forms a protective oxide coating when exposed to air and --- burns with an intense white flame. It also reacts with sulphur, nitrogen --- and the halogens. First isolated by Bussy in 1828. -fun Magnesium : Class ; -fun Magnesium_Class : SubClass Magnesium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Grey brittle metallic transition element. --- Rather electropositive, combines with some non_metals when heated. --- Discovered in 1774 by Scheele. -fun Manganese : Class ; -fun Manganese_Class : SubClass Manganese ElementalSubstance ; - --- Half_life of approximately 5ms. The creation --- of this element demonstrated that fusion techniques could indeed be used --- to make new, heavy nuclei. Made and identified by physicists of the Heavy --- Ion Research Laboratory, Darmstadt, West Germany in 1982. Named in honor --- of Lise Meitner the Austrian physicist. -fun Meitnerium : Class ; -fun Meitnerium_Class : SubClass Meitnerium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element. --- Belongs to the actinoid series. Only known isotope, Md_256 has a --- half_life of 1.3 hours. First identified by Glenn T. Seaborg, Albert --- Ghiorso and associates in 1955. Alternative name {unnilunium} has been --- proposed. Named after the 'inventor' of the periodic table, Dmitri --- Mendeleev. -fun Mendelevium : Class ; -fun Mendelevium_Class : SubClass Mendelevium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Heavy silvery liquid metallic element, belongs to --- the zinc group. Used in thermometers, barometers and other scientific --- apparatus. Less reactive than zinc and cadmium, does not displace --- hydrogen from acids. Forms a number of complexes and organomercury --- compounds. -fun Mercury : Class ; -fun Mercury_Class : SubClass Mercury ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery_white, hard metallic transition --- element. It is chemically unreactive and is not affected by most acids. --- It oxidizes at high temperatures. There are seven natural isotopes, and --- four radioisotopes, Mo_93 being the most stable with a half_life of 3500 --- years. Molybdenum is used in almost all high_strength steels, it has --- nuclear applications, and is a catalyst in petroleum refining. Discovered --- in 1778 by Carl Welhelm Scheele of Sweden. Impure metal was prepared in --- 1782 by Peter Jacob Hjelm. The name comes from the Greek word molybdos --- which means lead. Trace amounts of molybdenum are required for all known --- forms of life. All molybdenum compounds should be considered highly --- toxic, and will also cause severe birth defects. -fun Molybdenum : Class ; -fun Molybdenum_Class : SubClass Molybdenum ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft bright silvery metallic element, belongs to --- the lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Nd_144 being the only --- radioactive one with a half_life of 10^10 to 10^15 years. Six artificial --- radioisotopes have been produced. The metal is used in glass works to --- color class a shade of violet_purple and make it dichroic. One of the --- more reactive rare_earth metals, quickly reacts with air. Used in some --- rare_earth alloys. Neodymium is used to color the glass used in welder's --- glasses. Neodymium is also used in very powerful, permanent magnets --- (Nd2Fe14B). Discovered by Carl F. Auer von Welsbach in Austria in 1885 --- by separating didymium into its elemental components {praseodymium} and --- neodymium. The name comes from the Greek words 'neos didymos' which means --- 'new twin'. Neodymium should be considered highly toxic, however evidence --- would seem to show that it acts as little more than a skin and eye --- irritant. The dust however, presents a fire and explosion hazard. -fun Neodymium : Class ; -fun Neodymium_Class : SubClass Neodymium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colourless gaseous element of group 18 on the --- periodic table (noble gases). Neon occurs in the atmosphere, and --- comprises 0.0018 percent of the volume of the atmosphere. It has a --- distinct reddish glow when used in discharge tubes and neon based lamps. --- It forms almost no chemical compounds. Neon was discovered in 1898 by Sir --- William Ramsey and M.W. Travers. -fun Neon : Class ; -fun Neon_Class : SubClass Neon ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, --- belongs to the actinoids. Np_237, the most stable isotope, has a --- half_life of 2.2*10^6 years and is a by product of nuclear reactors. The --- other known isotopes have mass numbers 229 through 236, and 238 through --- 241. Np_236 has a half_life of 5*10^3 years. First produced by Edwin M. --- McMillan and P.H. Abelson in 1940. -fun Neptunium : Class ; -fun Neptunium_Class : SubClass Neptunium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Malleable ductile silvery metallic transition --- element. Discovered by A.F. Cronstedt in 1751. -fun Nickel : Class ; -fun Nickel_Class : SubClass Nickel ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft, ductile grey_blue metallic transition --- element. Used in special steels and in welded joints to increase --- strength. Combines with halogens and oxidizes in air at 200 degrees --- celsius. Discovered by Charles Hatchett in 1801 and isolated by --- Blomstrand in 1864. Called {columbium} originally. -fun Niobium : Class ; -fun Niobium_Class : SubClass Niobium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colourless, gaseous element which belongs to --- group 15 of the periodic table. Constitutes ~78 percent of the atmosphere --- and is an essential part of the ecosystem. Nitrogen for industrial --- purposes is acquired by the fractional distillation of liquid air. --- Chemically inactive, reactive generally only at high temperatures or in --- electrical discharges. It was discovered in 1772 by D. Rutherford. -fun Nitrogen : Class ; -fun Nitrogen_Class : SubClass Nitrogen ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs --- to the actinoids. Seven known isotopes exist, the most stable being --- No_254 with a half_life of 255 seconds. First identified with certainty --- by Albert Ghiorso and Glenn T. Seaborg in 1966. {Unnilbium} has been --- proposed as an alternative name. -fun Nobelium : Class ; -fun Nobelium_Class : SubClass Nobelium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Hard blue_white metallic transition element. Found --- with platinum and used in some alloys with platinum and iridium. -fun Osmium : Class ; -fun Osmium_Class : SubClass Osmium ElementalSubstance ; - --- A colourless, odourless gaseous element belonging --- to group 16 of the periodic table. It is the most abundant element --- present in the earth's crust. It also makes up 20.8 percent of the --- Earth's atmosphere. For industrial purposes, it is separated from liquid --- air by fractional distillation. It is used in high temperature welding, --- and in breathing. It commonly comes in the form of Oxygen, but is found --- as Ozone in the upper atmosphere. It was discovered by Priestley in --- 1774. -fun Oxygen : Class ; -fun Oxygen_Class : SubClass Oxygen ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft white ductile transition element. Found --- with some copper and nickel ores. Does not react with oxygen at normal --- temperatures. Dissolves slowly in hydrochloric acid. Discovered in 1803 --- by W.H. Wollaston. -fun Palladium : Class ; -fun Palladium_Class : SubClass Palladium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Non_metallic element belonging to group 15 of --- the periodic table. Has a multiple allotropic forms. Essential element --- for living organisms. It was discovered by Brandt in 1669. -fun Phosphorus : Class ; -fun Phosphorus_Class : SubClass Phosphorus ElementalSubstance ; - --- Attractive greyish_white metal. When pure, it is --- malleable and ductile. Does not oxidize in air, insoluble in hydrochloric --- and nitric acid. Corroded by halogens, cyandies, sulphur and alkalis. --- {Hydrogen} and {oxygen} react explosively in the presence of platinum. --- There are six stable isotopes and three radioisotopes, the most stable --- being Pt_193 with a half_life of 60 years. Platinum is used in jewelry, --- laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, and anti_pollution --- devices in cars. PtCl2(NH3)2 is used to treat some forms of cancer. --- Platinum_{cobalt} alloys have magnetic properties. It is also used in the --- definition of the Standard Hydrogen Electrode. Discovered by Antonio de --- Ulloa in South America in 1735. The name comes from the Spanish word --- platina which means silver. Platinum metal is generally not a health --- concern due to its unreactivity, however platinum compounds should be --- considered highly toxic. -fun Platinum : Class ; -fun Platinum_Class : SubClass Platinum ElementalSubstance ; - --- Dense silvery radioactive metallic transuranic --- element, belongs to the actinoids. Pu_244 is the most stable isotope with --- a half_life of 7.6*10^7 years. Thirteen isotopes are known. Pu_239 is --- the most important, it undergoes nuclear fission with slow neutrons and is --- hence important to nuclear weapons and reactors. Plutonium production is --- monitored down to the gram to prevent military misuse. First produced by --- Gleen T. Seaborg, Edwin M. McMillan, J.W. Kennedy and A.C. Wahl in --- 1940. -fun Plutonium : Class ; -fun Plutonium_Class : SubClass Plutonium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Rare radioactive metallic element, belongs to --- group 16 of the periodic table. Over 30 known isotopes exist, the most of --- all elements. Po_209 has a half_life of 103 years. Possible uses in --- heating spacecraft. Discovered by Marie Curie in 1898 in a sample of --- pitchblende. -fun Polonium : Class ; -fun Polonium_Class : SubClass Polonium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element belonging to group --- 1 of the periodic table (alkali metals). Occurs naturally in seawater and --- a many minerals. Highly reactive, chemically, it resembles sodium in its --- behavior and compounds. Discovered by Sir Humphry Davy in 1807. -fun Potassium : Class ; -fun Potassium_Class : SubClass Potassium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the --- lanthanoids. Only natural isotope is Pr_141 which is not radioactive. --- Fourteen radioactive isotopes have been artificially produced. Used in --- rare_earth alloys. Discovered in 1885 by C.A. von Welsbach. -fun Praseodymium : Class ; -fun Praseodymium_Class : SubClass Praseodymium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the --- lanthanoids. Pm_147, the only natural isotope, is radioactive and has a --- half_life of 252 years. Eighteen radioisotopes have been produced, but --- all have very short half_lives. Found only in nuclear decay waste. --- Pm_147 is of interest as a beta_decay source, however Pm_146 and Pm_148 --- have to be removed from it first, as they generate gamma radiation. --- Discovered by J.A. Marinsky, L.E. Glendenin and C.D. Coryell in --- 1947. -fun Promethium : Class ; -fun Promethium_Class : SubClass Promethium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic element, belongs to the --- actinoids. The most stable isotope, Pa_231 has a half_life of 2.43*10^4 --- years. At least 10 other radioactive isotopes are known. No practical --- applications are known. Discovered in 1917 by Lise Meitner and Otto --- Hahn. -fun Protactinium : Class ; -fun Protactinium_Class : SubClass Protactinium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transuranic element, belongs --- to group 2 of the periodic table. Most stable isotope, Ra_226 has a --- half_life of 1602 years, which decays into radon. Isolated from --- pitchblende in 1898 Marie and Pierre Curie. -fun Radium : Class ; -fun Radium_Class : SubClass Radium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colorless radioactive gaseous element, belongs to --- the noble gases. Of the twenty known isotopes, the most stable is Rn_222 --- with a half_life of 3.8 days. Formed by the radioactive decay of --- {Radium}_226. Radon itself decays into {polonium}. Used in radiotherapy. --- As a noble gas, it is effectively inert, though radon fluoride has been --- synthesized. First isolated in 1908 by Ramsey and Gray. -fun Radon : Class ; -fun Radon_Class : SubClass Radon ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery_white metallic transition element. --- Obtained as a by_product of molybdenum refinement. Rhenium_molybdenum --- alloys are superconducting. -fun Rhenium : Class ; -fun Rhenium_Class : SubClass Rhenium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery white metallic transition element. Found --- with platinum and used in some platinum alloys. Not attacked by acids, --- dissolves only in aqua regia. Discovered in 1803 by W.H. Wollaston. -fun Rhodium : Class ; -fun Rhodium_Class : SubClass Rhodium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to group 1 --- of the periodic table. Rb_97, the naturally occurring isotope, is --- radioactive. It is highly reactive, with properties similar to other --- elements in group 1, like igniting spontaneously in air. Discovered --- spectroscopically in 1861 by W. Bunsen and G.R. Kirchoff. -fun Rubidium : Class ; -fun Rubidium_Class : SubClass Rubidium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Hard white metallic transition element. Found --- with platinum, used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. Dissolves in --- fused alkalis, and is not attacked by acids. Reacts with halogens and --- oxygen at high temperatures. Isolated in 1844 by K.K. Klaus. -fun Ruthenium : Class ; -fun Ruthenium_Class : SubClass Ruthenium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery metallic element, belongs to the --- lanthanoids. Seven natural isotopes, Sm_147 is the only radioisotope, and --- has a half_life of 2.5*10^11 years. Used for making special alloys needed --- in the production of nuclear reactors. Also used as a neutron absorber. --- Small quantities of samarium oxide is used in special optical glasses. --- The largest use of the element is its ferromagnetic alloy which produces --- permanent magnets that are five times stronger than magnets produced by --- any other material. Discovered by Francois Lecoq de Boisbaudran in --- 1879. -fun Samarium : Class ; -fun Samarium_Class : SubClass Samarium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Rare soft silvery metallic element belonging to --- group 3 of the periodic table. There are ten isotopes, nine of which are --- radioactive and have short half_lives. Predicted in 1869 by Mendeleev, --- isolated by Nilson in 1879. -fun Scandium : Class ; -fun Scandium_Class : SubClass Scandium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Metalloid element, belongs to group 16 of the --- periodic table. Multiple allotropic forms exist. Chemically resembles --- sulphur. Discovered in 1817 by Jons J. Berzelius. -fun Selenium : Class ; -fun Selenium_Class : SubClass Selenium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Metalloid element belonging to group 14 of the --- periodic table. It is the second most abundant element in the Earth's --- crust, making up 25.7 percent of it by weight. Chemically less reactive --- than carbon. First identified by Lavoisier in 1787 and first isolated in --- 1823 by Berzelius. -fun Silicon : Class ; -fun Silicon_Class : SubClass Silicon ElementalSubstance ; - --- White lustrous soft metallic transition element. --- Found in both its elemental form and in minerals. Used in jewellery, --- tableware and so on. Less reactive than silver, chemically. -fun Silver : Class ; -fun Silver_Class : SubClass Silver ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft silvery reactive element belonging to group 1 --- of the periodic table (alkali metals). It is highly reactive, oxidizing --- in air and reacting violently with water, forcing it to be kept under oil. --- It was first isolated by Humphrey Davy in 1807. -fun Sodium : Class ; -fun Sodium_Class : SubClass Sodium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft yellowish metallic element, belongs to --- group 2 of the periodic table. Highly reactive chemically. Sr_90 is --- present in radioactive fallout and has a half_life of 28 years. --- Discovered in 1798 by Klaproth and Hope, isolated in 1808 by Humphry --- Davy. -fun Strontium : Class ; -fun Strontium_Class : SubClass Strontium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Yellow, nonmetallic element belonging to group 16 --- of the periodic table. It is an essential element in living organisms, --- needed in the amino acids cysteine and methionine, and hence in many --- proteins. Absorbed by plants from the soil as sulphate ion. -fun Sulphur : Class ; -fun Sulphur_Class : SubClass Sulphur ElementalSubstance ; - --- Heavy blue_grey metallic transition element. --- Ta_181 is a stable isotope, and Ta_180 is a radioactive isotope, with a --- half_life in excess of 10^7 years. Used in surgery as it is unreactive. --- Forms a passive oxide layer in air. Identified in 1802 by Ekeberg and --- isolated in 1820 by Jons J. Berzelius. -fun Tantalum : Class ; -fun Tantalum_Class : SubClass Tantalum ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive metallic transition element. Can --- be detected in some stars and the fission products of uranium. First made --- by Perrier and Segre by bombarding molybdenum with deutrons, giving them --- Tc_97. Tc_99 is the most stable isotope with a half_life of 2.6*10^6 --- years. Sixteen isotopes are known. Organic technetium compounds are used --- in bone imaging. Chemical properties are intermediate between rhenium and --- manganese. -fun Technetium : Class ; -fun Technetium_Class : SubClass Technetium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery metalloid element of group 16. Eight --- natural isotopes, nine radioactive isotopes. Used in semiconductors and --- to a degree in some steels. Chemistry is similar to {sulphur}. --- Discovered in 1782 by Franz Miller. -fun Tellurium : Class ; -fun Tellurium_Class : SubClass Tellurium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery metallic element belonging to the --- lanthanoids. Tb_159 is the only stable isotope, there are seventeen --- artificial isotopes. Discovered by G.G. Mosander in 1843. -fun Terbium : Class ; -fun Terbium_Class : SubClass Terbium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Pure, unreacted thallium appears silvery_white --- and exhibits a metallic lustre. Upon reacting with air, it begins to turn --- bluish_grey and looks like lead. It is very malleable, and can be cut --- with a knife. There are two stable isotopes, and four radioisotopes, --- Tl_204 being the most stable with a half_life of 3.78 years. Thallium --- sulphate was used as a rodenticide. Thallium sulphine's conductivity --- changes with exposure to infrared light, this gives it a use in infrared --- detectors. Discovered by Sir William Crookes via spectroscopy. Its name --- comes from the Greek word thallos, which means green twig. Thallium and --- its compounds are toxic and can cause cancer. -fun Thallium : Class ; -fun Thallium_Class : SubClass Thallium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Grey radioactive metallic element. Belongs to --- actinoids. Found in monazite sand in Brazil, India and the US. --- Thorium_232 has a half_life of 1.39x10^10 years. Can be used as a nuclear --- fuel for breeder reactors. Thorium_232 captures slow {neutron}s and --- breeds uranium_233. Discovered by Jons J. Berzelius in 1829. -fun Thorium : Class ; -fun Thorium_Class : SubClass Thorium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft grey metallic element that belongs to the --- lanthanoids. One natural isotope exists, Tm_169, and seventeen artificial --- isotopes have been produced. No known uses for the element. Discovered --- in 1879 by Per Theodor Cleve. -fun Thulium : Class ; -fun Thulium_Class : SubClass Thulium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery malleable metallic element belonging to group --- 14 of the periodic table. Twenty_six isotopes are known, five of which --- are radioactive. Chemically reactive. Combines directly with chlorine --- and oxygen and displaces hydrogen from dilute acids. -fun Tin : Class ; -fun Tin_Class : SubClass Tin ElementalSubstance ; - --- White metallic transition element. Occurs in --- numerous minerals. Used in strong, light corrosion_resistant alloys. --- Forms a passive oxide coating when exposed to air. First discovered by --- Gregor in 1789. -fun Titanium : Class ; -fun Titanium_Class : SubClass Titanium ElementalSubstance ; - --- White or grey metallic transition element, --- formerly called {wolfram}. Forms a protective oxide in air and can be --- oxidized at high temperature. First isolated by Jose and Fausto de --- Elhuyer in 1783. -fun Tungsten : Class ; -fun Tungsten_Class : SubClass Tungsten ElementalSubstance ; - --- Half_life of approximately 10ms. Reported in --- 1994 by German researchers at Darmstadt, Germany. -fun Unnildecium : Class ; -fun Unnildecium_Class : SubClass Unnildecium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Half_life of 0.9 +/_ 0.2 s. Discovered by the --- Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in June of 1974. --- Its existence was confirmed by the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and --- Livermore National Laboratory in September of 1974. -fun Unnilhexium : Class ; -fun Unnilhexium_Class : SubClass Unnilhexium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive transition metal. -fun Unniloctium : Class ; -fun Unniloctium_Class : SubClass Unniloctium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive transactinide element. Half_life --- of 1.6s. Discovered in 1970 by Berkeley researchers. So far, seven --- isotopes have been discovered. -fun Unnilpentium : Class ; -fun Unnilpentium_Class : SubClass Unnilpentium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive transactinide element. Expected --- to have similar chemical properties to those displayed by hafnium. Rf_260 --- was discovered by the Joint Nuclear Research Institute at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) --- in 1964. Researchers at Berkeley discovered Unq_257 and Unq_258 in --- 1964. -fun Unnilquadium : Class ; -fun Unnilquadium_Class : SubClass Unnilquadium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Radioactive transition metal. Half_life of --- approximately 1/500 s. Discovered by the Joint Institute for Nuclear --- Research at Dubna (U.S.S.R.) in 1976. Confirmed by West German physicists --- at the Heavy Ion Research Laboratory at Darmstadt. -fun Unnilseptium : Class ; -fun Unnilseptium_Class : SubClass Unnilseptium ElementalSubstance ; - --- White radioactive metallic element belonging to --- the actinoids. Three natural isotopes, U_238, U_235 and U_234. --- Uranium_235 is used as the fuel for nuclear reactors and weapons. --- Discovered by Martin H. Klaproth in 1789. -fun Uranium : Class ; -fun Uranium_Class : SubClass Uranium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Soft and ductile, bright white metal. Good --- resistance to corrosion by alkalis, sulphuric and hydrochloric acid. It --- oxidizes readily about 933K. There are two naturally occurring isotopes --- of vanadium, and 5 radioisotopes, V_49 having the longest half_life at 337 --- days. Vanadium has nuclear applications, the foil is used in cladding --- titanium to steel, and vanadium_gallium tape is used to produce a --- superconductive magnet. Originally discovered by Andres Manuel del Rio of --- Mexico City in 1801. His discovery went unheeded, however, and in 1820, --- Nils Gabriel Sefstron of Sweden rediscovered it. Metallic vanadium was --- isolated by Henry Enfield Roscoe in 1867. The name vanadium comes from --- {Vanadis}, a goddess of Scandinavian mythology. Silvery_white metallic --- transition element. Vanadium is essential to {ascidian}s. Rats and --- chickens are also known to require it. Metal powder is a fire hazard, and --- vanadium compounds should be considered highly toxic. May cause lung --- cancer if inhaled. -fun Vanadium : Class ; -fun Vanadium_Class : SubClass Vanadium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Colourless, odourless gas belonging to group 18 on --- the periodic table (the noble gases.) Nine natural isotopes and seven --- radioactive isotopes are known. Xenon was part of the first noble_gas --- compound synthesized. Several others involving Xenon have been found --- since then. Xenon was discovered by Ramsey and Travers in 1898. -fun Xenon : Class ; -fun Xenon_Class : SubClass Xenon ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery metallic element of the lanthanoids. --- Seven natural isotopes and ten artificial isotopes are known. Used in --- certain steels. Discovered by J.D.G. Marignac in 1878. -fun Ytterbium : Class ; -fun Ytterbium_Class : SubClass Ytterbium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Silvery_grey metallic element of group 3 on the --- periodic table. Found in uranium ores. The only natural isotope is Y_89, --- there are 14 other artificial isotopes. Chemically resembles the --- lanthanoids. Stable in the air below 400 degrees, celsius. Discovered in --- 1828 by Friedrich Wohler. -fun Yttrium : Class ; -fun Yttrium_Class : SubClass Yttrium ElementalSubstance ; - --- Blue_white metallic element. Occurs in multiple --- compounds naturally. Five stable isotopes are six radioactive isotopes --- have been found. Chemically a reactive metal, combines with oxygen and --- other non_metals, reacts with dilute acids to release hydrogen. -fun Zinc : Class ; -fun Zinc_Class : SubClass Zinc ElementalSubstance ; - --- Grey_white metallic transition element. Five --- natural isotopes and six radioactive isotopes are known. Used in nuclear --- reactors for a {neutron} absorber. Discovered in 1789 by Martin Klaproth, --- isolated in 1824 by Berzelius. -fun Zirconium : Class ; -fun Zirconium_Class : SubClass Zirconium ElementalSubstance ; -} \ No newline at end of file -- cgit v1.2.3