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+\documentclass[11pt,a4paper]{article}
+\usepackage{amsfonts,graphicx}
+\usepackage[pdfstartview=FitH,urlcolor=blue,colorlinks=true,bookmarks=true]{hyperref}
+\pagestyle{plain}   % do page numbering ('empty' turns off)
+\frenchspacing      % no aditional spaces after periods
+\setlength{\parskip}{8pt}\parindent=0pt  % no paragraph indentation
+
+\newcommand{\commOut}[1]{}
+\newcommand{\subsubsubsection}[1]{\textit{#1}}
+
+\title{The GF Resource Grammar Library}
+\author{Author: Aarne Ranta}
+\begin{document}
+\date{Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006}
+\maketitle
+
+\tableofcontents
+
+\clearpage
+
+
+This document is about the 
+GF Resource Grammar Library. It presuppose knowledge of GF and its
+module system, knowledge that can be acquired e.g. from the GF
+tutorial. We start with an introduction to the library, and proceed to
+details with the aim of covering all that one needs to know 
+in order to use the library. 
+How to write one's own resource grammar (i.e. implement the API for
+a new language), is covered by a separate Resource-HOWTO document.
+
+\section{Motivation}
+The GF Resource Grammar Library contains grammar rules for
+10 languages (some more are under construction). Its purpose
+is to make these rules available for application programmers,
+who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic
+aspects of their grammars, without having to think about 
+grammaticality. The level of a typical application grammarian
+is skilled programmer, without knowledge linguistics, but with
+a good knowledge of the target languages. Such a combination of
+skilles is typical of a programmer who wants to localize a piece
+of software to a new language.
+
+To give an example, an application dealing with
+music players may have a semantical category \texttt{Kind}, examples
+of Kinds being Song and Artist. In German, for instance, Song 
+is linearized into the noun "Lied", but knowing this is not
+enough to make the application work, because the noun must be 
+produced in both singular and plural, and in four different
+cases. By using the resource grammar library, it is enough to
+write
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin Song = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter
+\end{verbatim}
+and the eight forms are correctly generated. The resource grammar
+library contains a complete set of inflectional paradigms (such as
+regN2 here), enabling the definition of any lexical items.
+
+The resource grammar library is not only about inflectional paradigms - it
+also has syntax rules. The music player application
+might also want to modify songs with properties, such as "American",
+"old", "good". The German grammar for adjectival modifications is
+particularly complex, because the adjectives have to agree in gender,
+number, and case, and also depend on what determiner is used
+("ein Amerikanisches Lied" vs. "das Amerikanische Lied"). All this
+variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN
+\end{verbatim}
+and the resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties
+to kinds is
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin PropKind kind prop = AdjCN prop kind
+\end{verbatim}
+given that 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lincat Prop = AP
+  lincat Kind = CN
+\end{verbatim}
+The resource library API is devided into language-specific and language-independet
+parts. To put is roughly,
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item lexicon is language-specific
+\item syntax is language-independent
+\end{itemize}
+
+Thus, to render the above example in French instead of German, we need to
+pick a different linearization of Song,
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin Song = regGenN "chanson" feminine
+\end{verbatim}
+But to linearize PropKind, we can use the very same rule as in German.
+The resource function AdjCN has different implementations in the two
+languages, but the application programmer need not care about the difference.
+
+\subsection{A complete example}
+To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on,
+here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties.
+The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology":
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Music = {
+    cat 
+      Kind, 
+      Property ;
+    fun 
+      PropKind : Kind -> Property -> Kind ; 
+      Song : Kind ;
+      American : Property ;
+    }
+\end{verbatim}
+The concrete syntax is defined independently of language, by opening
+two interfaces: the resource Grammar and an application lexicon.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = open Grammar, MusicLex in {
+    lincat 
+      Kind = CN ;
+      Property = AP ;
+    lin
+      PropKind k p = AdjCN p k ;
+      Song = UseN song_N ;
+      American = PositA american_A ;
+    }
+\end{verbatim}
+The application lexicon MusicLex has an abstract syntax, that extends
+the resource category system Cat.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract MusicLex = Cat ** {
+    fun
+      song_N : N ;
+      american_A : A ;
+    }
+\end{verbatim}
+Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the inflectional paradigms
+module for that language:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in {
+    lin
+      song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ;
+      american_A = regA "amerikanisch" ;
+    }
+
+  concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in {
+    lin
+      song_N = regGenN "chanson" feminine ;
+      american_A = regA "américain" ;
+    }
+\end{verbatim}
+The top-level Music grammars are obtained by instantiating the two interfaces
+of MusicI:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with
+    (Grammar = GrammarGer),
+    (MusicLex = MusicLexGer) ;
+
+  concrete MusicFre of Music = MusicI with
+    (Grammar = GrammarFre),
+    (MusicLex = MusicLexFre) ;
+\end{verbatim}
+To localize the system to a new language, all that is needed is two modules,
+one implementing MusicLex and the other instantiating Music. The latter is
+completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct
+vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  concrete MusicLexFin of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFin in {
+    lin
+      song_N = regN "kappale" ;
+      american_A = regA "amerikkalainen" ;
+    }
+
+  concrete MusicFin of Music = MusicI with
+    (Grammar = GrammarFin),
+    (MusicLex = MusicLexFin) ;
+\end{verbatim}
+More work is of course needed if the language-independent linearizations in
+MusicI are not satisfactory for some language. The resource grammar guarantees
+that the linearizations are possible in all languages, in the sense of grammatical,
+but they might of course be inadequate for stylistic reasons. Assume, 
+for the sake of argument, that adjectival modification does not sound good in
+English, but that a relative clause would be preferrable. One can then start as
+before,
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  concrete MusicLexEng of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsEng in {
+    lin
+      song_N = regN "song" ;
+      american_A = regA "American" ;
+    }
+
+  concrete MusicEng0 of Music = MusicI with
+    (Grammar = GrammarEng),
+    (MusicLex = MusicLexEng) ;
+\end{verbatim}
+The module MusicEng0 would not be used on the top level, however, but
+another module would be built on top of it, with a restricted import from
+MusicEng0. MusicEng inherits everything from MusicEng0 except PropKind, and
+gives its own definition of this function:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  concrete MusicEng of Music = MusicEng0 - [PropKind] ** open GrammarEng in {
+    lin
+      PropKind k p = 
+        RelCN k (UseRCl TPres ASimul PPos (RelVP IdRP (UseComp (CompAP p)))) ;
+    }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsection{Parsing with resource grammars?}
+The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing
+application grammars. It is not designed for e.g. parsing newspaper text. There
+are several reasons why this is not so practical:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in
+particular, discontinuous constituents, which make parsing slow and the
+parser size huge.
+\item Completeness: the resource grammar does not necessarily cover all rules
+of the language - only enough many to be able to express everything
+in one way or another.
+\item Lexicon: the resource grammar has a very small lexicon, only meant for test
+purposes.
+\item Semantics: the resource grammar has very little semantic control, and may
+accept strange input or deliver strange interpretations.
+\item Ambiguity: parsing in the resource grammar may return lots of results many
+of which are implausible.
+\end{itemize}
+
+All of these problems should be solved in application grammars. 
+The task of resource grammars is just to take care of low-level linguistic 
+details such as inflection, agreement, and word order.
+
+For the same reasons, resource grammars are not adequate for parsing.
+That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes
+it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation
+equivalence. Of course, the use of parametrized implementations such as MusicI
+above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation
+equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and real applications
+will often use only restricted inheritance of MusicI.
+
+\section{To find rules in the resource grammar library}
+\subsection{Inflection paradigms}
+Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language L
+in the module ParadigmsL. To test them, the command cc (= compute\_concrete)
+can be used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  > i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf
+
+  > cc regN "Schlange"
+  {
+    s : Number => Case => Str = table Number {
+      Sg => table Case {
+        Nom => "Schlange" ;
+        Acc => "Schlange" ;
+        Dat => "Schlange" ;
+        Gen => "Schlange"
+        } ;
+      Pl => table Case {
+        Nom => "Schlangen" ;
+        Acc => "Schlangen" ;
+        Dat => "Schlangen" ;
+        Gen => "Schlangen"
+        }
+      } ;
+    g : Gender = Fem
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+For the sake of convenience, every language implements these four paradigms:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    regN : Str -> N ;   -- regular nouns
+    regA : Str -> A :   -- regular adjectives
+    regV : Str -> V ;   -- regular verbs
+    dirV : V   -> V2 ;  -- direct transitive verbs
+\end{verbatim}
+It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions,
+and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in
+German we cannot use regN "Lied" for Song, because the result would be a
+Masculine noun with the plural form "Liede". The individual Paradigms modules
+tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics.
+
+As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language
+by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This will
+produce language with correct grammar but content words directly borrowed from
+English.
+
+\subsection{Syntax rules}
+Syntax rules should be looked for in the abstract modules defining the
+API. There are around 10 such modules, each defining constructors for
+a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module
+Noun defines how to construct common nouns, noun phrases, and determiners.
+Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives
+is Noun, because the result of the construction is again a common noun.
+
+Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages. 
+However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is 
+probably to use the parser.
+Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application 
+of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians
+to browse the library. To find out what resource function does some
+particular job, you can just parse a string that exemplifies this job. For
+instance, to find out how sentences are built using transitive verbs, write
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  > i english/LangEng.gf
+ 
+  > p -cat=Cl -fcfg "she loves him"
+
+  PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron))
+\end{verbatim}
+Parsing with the English resource grammar has an acceptable speed, but
+with most languages it takes just too much resources even to build the
+parser. However, examples parsed in one language can always be linearized into
+other languages:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  > i italian/LangIta.gf
+
+  > l PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron))
+
+  lo ama
+\end{verbatim}
+Therefore, one can use the English parser to write an Italian grammar, and also
+to write a language-independent (incomplete) grammar. One can also parse strings
+that are bizarre in English but the intended way of expression in another language.
+For instance, the phrase for "I am hungry" in Italian is literally "I have hunger".
+This can be built by parsing "I have beer" in LanEng and then writing
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin IamHungry = 
+    let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine 
+    in
+    PredVP (UsePron i_Pron) (ComplV2 have_V2 
+      (DetCN (DetSg MassDet NoOrd) (UseN beer_N))) ;
+\end{verbatim}
+which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN. 
+
+\subsection{Example-based grammar writing}
+The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files,
+endowed with the suffix .gfe ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess
+the file by replacing all expressions of the form
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  in Module.Cat "example string"
+\end{verbatim}
+by the syntax trees obtained by parsing "example string" in Cat in Module.
+For instance,
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin IamHungry = 
+    let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine 
+    in
+    (in LangEng.Cl "I have beer") ;
+\end{verbatim}
+will result in the rule displayed in the previous section. The normal binding rules
+of functional programming (and GF) guarantee that local bindings of identifiers
+take precedence over constants of the same forms. Thus it is also possible to
+linearize functions taking arguments in this way:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin
+    PropKind car_N old_A = in LangEng.CN "old car" ;
+\end{verbatim}
+However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item Ambiguity. If a string has several parses, the first one is returned, and
+it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from
+where they must/can be picked manually.
+\item Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus
+not available for categories that have no lexical items. For instance, the PropKind
+rule above gives the result
+\begin{verbatim}
+  lin
+    PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ;  
+\end{verbatim}
+However, it is possible to write a special lexicon that gives atomic rules for
+all those categories that can be used as arguments, for instance,
+\begin{verbatim}
+  fun
+    cat_CN : CN ;
+    old_AP : AP ;
+\end{verbatim}
+and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in Lang.
+\end{itemize}
+
+\subsection{Special-purpose APIs}
+To give an analogy with a well-known type setting program, GF can be compared
+with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX. As TeX frees the author
+from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian
+from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of
+\textit{how} to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps
+GF grammarians in a way similar to how the LaTeX macro package helps TeX authors.
+
+But even LaTeX is often too detailed and low-level, and users are encouraged to
+develop their own macro packages. The same applies to GF resource grammars:
+the application grammarian might not need all the choises that the resource
+provides, but would prefer less writing and higher-level programming.
+To this end, application grammarians may want to write their own views on the
+resource grammar. An example of this is already provided, in mathematical/Predication.
+Instead of the NP-VP structure, it permits clause construction directly from
+verbs and adjectives and their arguments:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  predV     : V  -> NP -> Cl ;             -- "x converges"
+  predV2    : V2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ;       -- "x intersects y"
+  predV3    : V3 -> NP -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y at z"
+  predVColl : V  -> NP -> NP -> Cl ;       -- "x and y intersect"
+  predA     : A  -> NP -> Cl ;             -- "x is even"
+  predA2    : A2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ;       -- "x is divisible by y"
+\end{verbatim}
+The implementation of this module is the functor PredicationI:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  predV v x = PredVP x (UseV v) ;
+  predV2 v x y = PredVP x (ComplV2 v y) ;
+  predV3 v x y z = PredVP x (ComplV3 v y z) ;
+  predVColl v x y = PredVP (ConjNP and_Conj (BaseNP x y)) (UseV v) ;
+  predA a x = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (PositA a))) ;
+  predA2 a x y = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (ComplA2 a y))) ;
+\end{verbatim}
+Of course, Predication can be opened together with Grammar, but using
+the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both
+ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious
+ambiguities. Using Predication without Verb for parsing is a better idea,
+since parsing is also made more efficient without the VP category.
+
+The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent to be seen as an alternative
+to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing
+with the resource grammars gets more efficient.
+
+\section{Overview of syntactic structures}
+\subsection{Texts. phrases, and utterances}
+The outermost linguistic structure is Text. Texts are composed
+from Phrases followed by punctuation marks - either of ".", "?" or
+"!" (with their proper variants in Spanish and Arabic). Here is an 
+example of a Text.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  John walks. Why? He doesn't want to sleep!
+\end{verbatim}
+Phrases are mostly built from Utterances, which in turn are
+declarative sentences, questions, or imperatives - but there
+are also "one-word utterances" consisting of noun phrases
+or other subsentential phrases. Some Phrases are atomic,
+for instance "yes" and "no". Here are some examples of Phrases.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  yes
+  come on, John
+  but John walks
+  give me the stick please
+  don't you know that he is sleeping
+  a glass of wine
+  a glass of wine please
+\end{verbatim}
+There is no connection between the punctuation marks and the
+types of utterances. This reflects the fact that the punctuation
+mark in a real text is selected as a function of the speech act
+rather than the grammatical form of an utterance. The following
+text is thus well-formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  John walks. John walks? John walks!
+\end{verbatim}
+What is the difference between Phrase and Utterance? Just technical:
+a Phrase is an Utterance with an optional leading conjunction ("but")
+and an optional tailing vocative ("John", "please").
+
+\subsection{Sentences and clauses}
+The richest of the categories below Utterance is S, Sentence. A Sentence
+is formed from a Clause, by fixing its Tense, Anteriority, and Polarity.
+The difference between Sentence and Clause is thus also rather technical.
+For example, each of the following strings has a distinct syntax tree
+in the category Sentence:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  John walks
+  John doesn't walk
+  John walked
+  John didn't walk
+  John has walked
+  John hasn't walked
+  John will walk
+  John won't walk
+  ...
+\end{verbatim}
+whereas in the category Clause all of them are just different forms of
+the same tree.
+
+The following syntax tree of the Text "John walks." gives an overview
+of the structural levels.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+Node Constructor             Value type  Other constructors
+-----------------------------------------------------------
+ 1.  TFullStop               Text        TQuestMark
+ 2.    (PhrUtt               Phr             
+ 3.      NoPConj             PConj       but_PConj
+ 4.      (UttS               Utt         UttQS
+ 5.        (UseCl            S           UseQCl
+ 6.           TPres          Tense       TPast
+ 7.           ASimul         Anter       AAnter
+ 8.           PPos           Pol         PNeg
+ 9.           (PredVP        Cl              
+10.             (UsePN       NP          UsePron, DetCN
+11.               john_PN)   PN          mary_PN
+12.             (UseV        VP          ComplV2, ComplV3
+13.               walk_V)))) V           sleep_V
+14.      NoVoc)              Voc         please_Voc
+15.    TEmpty                Text            
+\end{verbatim}
+Here are some examples of the results of changing constructors.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+ 1. TFullStop -> TQuestMark   John walks?
+ 3. NoPConj   -> but_PConj    But John walks.
+ 6. TPres     -> TPast        John walked.
+ 7. ASimul    -> AAnter       John has walked.
+ 8. PPos      -> PNeg         John doesn't walk.
+11. john_PN   -> mary_PN      Mary walks.
+13. walk_V    -> sleep_V      John sleeps.
+14. NoVoc     -> please_Voc   John sleeps please.
+\end{verbatim}
+All constructors cannot of course be changed so freely, because the
+resulting tree would not remain well-typed. Here are some changes involving
+many constructors:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+ 4- 5. UttS (UseCl ...) -> 
+         UttQS (UseQCl (... QuestCl ...)) Does John walk?
+10-11. UsePN john_PN    -> 
+         UsePron we_Pron                  We walk.
+12-13. UseV walk_V      -> 
+         ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP          John loves this. 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsection{Parts of sentences}
+The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern
+syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally
+to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are
+NP (Noun Phrase) and VP (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically consists of just an
+NP and a VP. The internal structure of both NP and VP can be very complex,
+and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a VP contain an NP,
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  [VP loves [NP Mary]]
+\end{verbatim}
+but an NP can also contain a VP
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  [NP every man [RS who [VP walks]]]
+\end{verbatim}
+(a labelled bracketing like this is of course just a rough approximation of
+a GF syntax tree, but still a useful device of exposition).
+
+Most of the resource modules thus define functions that are used inside
+NPs and VPs. Here is a brief overview:
+
+Noun: How to construct NPs. The main three mechanisms 
+for constructing NPs are
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item from proper names: John
+\item from pronouns: we
+\item from common nouns by determiners: this man
+\end{itemize}
+
+The Noun module also defines the construction of common nouns. The most frequent ways are
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item lexical noun items: man
+\item adjectival modification: old man
+\item relative clause modification: man who sleeps
+\item application of relational nouns: successor of the number
+\end{itemize}
+
+Verb: How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments, for instance,
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item one-place verbs: walks
+\item two-place verbs: loves Mary
+\item three-place verbs: gives her a kiss
+\item sentence-complement verbs: says that it is cold
+\item VP-complement verbs: wants to give her a kiss
+\end{itemize}
+
+A special verb is the copula, "be" in English but not even realized 
+by a verb in all languages.
+A copula can take different kinds of complement: 
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item an adjectival phrase: (John is) old
+\item an adverb: (John is) here
+\item a noun phrase: (John is) a man
+\end{itemize}
+
+Adjective: How to constuct APs. The main ways are
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item positive forms of adjectives: old
+\item comparative forms with object of comparison: older than John
+\end{itemize}
+
+Adverb: How to construct Advs. The main ways are
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item from adjectives: slowly
+\end{itemize}
+
+\subsection{Modules and their names}
+The resource modules are named after the kind of phrases that are constructed in them,
+and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are
+formed in them:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item Larger than sentence: Text, Phrase 
+\item Same level as sentence: Sentence, Question, Relative
+\item Parts of sentence: Adjective, Adverb, Noun, Verb
+\item Cross-cut: Conjunction
+\end{itemize}
+
+Because of mutual recursion such as in embedded sentences, this classification is
+not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the 
+modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due
+to the module Cat, which defines the type system common to the other modules.
+For instance, the types NP and VP are defined in Cat, and the module Verb only
+needs to know what is given in Cat, not what is given in Noun. To implement
+a rule such as
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  Verb.ComplV2 : V2 -> NP -> VP
+\end{verbatim}
+it is enough to know the linearization type of NP (as well as those of V2 and VP, all
+given in Cat). It is not necessary to know what
+ways there are to build NPs (given in Noun), since all these ways must 
+conform to the linearization type defined in Cat. Thus the format of
+category-specific modules is as follows:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Adjective = Cat ** {...}
+  abstract Noun      = Cat ** {...}
+  abstract Verb      = Cat ** {...}
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsection{Top-level grammar and lexicon}
+The module Grammar collects all the category-specific modules into
+a complete grammar:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Grammar = 
+    Adjective, Noun, Verb, ..., Structural, Idiom
+\end{verbatim}
+The module Structural is a lexicon of structural words (function words),
+such as determiners.
+The module Idiom is a collection of idiomatic structures whose
+implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential
+structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc).
+
+The module Lang combines Grammar with a Lexicon of ca. 350 content words:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon
+\end{verbatim}
+Using Lang instead of Grammar as a library may give the advantage of prociding
+for free some words needed in an application. But its main purpose is to
+help testing the resource library. It does not seem possible to maintain
+a general-purpose multilingual lexicon, and this is the form that the module
+Lexicon has.
+
+\subsection{Language-specific syntactic structures}
+The API collected in Grammar has been designed to be implementable for
+all languages in the resource package. It does contain some rules that
+are strange or superfluous in some languages; for instance, the distinction
+between definite and indefinite articles does not apply to Finnish and Russian.
+But such rules are still easy to implement: they only create some superfluous
+ambiguity in the languages in question.
+
+But the library makes no claim that all languages should have exactly the same
+abstract syntax. The common API is therefore extended by language-dependent
+rules. The top level of each languages looks as follows (with English as example):
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs
+\end{verbatim}
+where ExtraEngAbs is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English,
+and DictEngAbs is an English dictionary (at the moment, it consists of IrregEngAbs,
+the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has 
+the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar
+can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost.
+
+To give a better overview of language-specific structures, modules like ExtraEngAbs
+are built from a language-independent module ExtraAbs by restricted inheritance:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...]
+\end{verbatim}
+Thus any category and function in Extra may be shared by a subset of all
+languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells what Extra structures
+are implemented in what languages. For the common API in Grammar, the matrix
+is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language).
+
+Language-specific extensions and the use of restricted
+inheritance is a recent addition to the resource grammar library, and
+has only been exploited in a very small scale so far.
+
+\section{API Documentation}
+\subsection{Top-level modules}
+
+\subsubsection{Grammar}
+This grammar a collection of the different grammar modules,
+To test the resource, import \htmladdnormallink{Lang}{Lang.html}, which also contains
+a lexicon.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Grammar = 
+    Noun,
+    Verb, 
+    Adjective,
+    Adverb,
+    Numeral,
+    Sentence, 
+    Question,
+    Relative,
+    Conjunction,
+    Phrase,
+    Text,
+    Structural,
+    Idiom
+    ** {} ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Grammar with lexicon}
+This grammar is just a collection of the different modules,
+and the one that can be imported when one wants to test the
+grammar. A module without a lexicon is \htmladdnormallink{Grammar}{Grammar.html},
+which may be more suitable to open in applications.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Lang = 
+    Grammar,
+    Lexicon
+    ** {} ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsection{Type system}
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{The category system}
+The category system is central to the library in the sense
+that the other modules (\texttt{Adjective}, \texttt{Adverb}, \texttt{Noun}, \texttt{Verb} etc)
+communicate through it. This means that a e.g. a function using
+\texttt{NP}s in \texttt{Verb} need not know how \texttt{NP}s are constructed in \texttt{Noun}:
+it is enough that both \texttt{Verb} and \texttt{Noun} use the same type \texttt{NP},
+which is given here in \texttt{Cat}.
+
+Some categories are inherited from \htmladdnormallink{Common}{Common.html}.
+The reason they are defined there is that they have the same
+implementation in all languages in the resource (typically,
+just a string). These categories are
+\texttt{AdA, AdN, AdV, Adv, Ant, CAdv, IAdv, PConj, Phr}, 
+\texttt{Pol, SC, Tense, Text, Utt, Voc}.
+
+Moreover, the list categories \texttt{ListAdv, ListAP, ListNP, ListS}
+are defined on \texttt{Conjunction} and only used locally there.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Cat = Common ** {
+  
+    cat
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Sentences and clauses}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}, and also in
+\htmladdnormallink{Idiom}{Idiom.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      S ;     -- declarative sentence                e.g. "she lived here"
+      QS ;    -- question                            e.g. "where did she live"
+      RS ;    -- relative                            e.g. "in which she lived"
+      Cl ;    -- declarative clause, with all tenses e.g. "she looks at this"
+      Slash ; -- clause missing NP (S/NP in GPSG)    e.g. "she looks at"
+      Imp ;   -- imperative                          e.g. "look at this"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Questions and interrogatives}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Question}{Question.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      QCl ;   -- question clause, with all tenses    e.g. "why does she walk"
+      IP ;    -- interrogative pronoun               e.g. "who"
+      IComp ; -- interrogative complement of copula  e.g. "where"
+      IDet ;  -- interrogative determiner            e.g. "which"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relative clauses and pronouns}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Relative}{Relative.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      RCl ;   -- relative clause, with all tenses    e.g. "in which she lives"
+      RP ;    -- relative pronoun                    e.g. "in which"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verb phrases}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      VP ;    -- verb phrase                         e.g. "is very warm"
+      Comp ;  -- complement of copula, such as AP    e.g. "very warm"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectival phrases}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Adjective}{Adjective.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AP ;    -- adjectival phrase                   e.g. "very warm"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns and noun phrases}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}. 
+Many atomic noun phrases e.g. \textit{everybody}
+are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}.
+The determiner structure is
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+Predet (QuantSg | QuantPl Num) Ord
+\end{verbatim}
+as defined in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      CN ;    -- common noun (without determiner)    e.g. "red house"
+      NP ;    -- noun phrase (subject or object)     e.g. "the red house"
+      Pron ;  -- personal pronoun                    e.g. "she"
+      Det ;   -- determiner phrase                   e.g. "all the seven"
+      Predet; -- predeterminer (prefixed Quant)      e.g. "all"
+      QuantSg;-- quantifier ('nucleus' of sing. Det) e.g. "every"
+      QuantPl;-- quantifier ('nucleus' of plur. Det) e.g. "many"
+      Quant ; -- quantifier with both sg and pl      e.g. "this/these"
+      Num ;   -- cardinal number (used with QuantPl) e.g. "seven"
+      Ord ;   -- ordinal number (used in Det)        e.g. "seventh"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Numerals}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Numeral}{Numeral.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      Numeral;-- cardinal or ordinal,                e.g. "five/fifth"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Structural words}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      Conj ;  -- conjunction,                        e.g. "and"
+      DConj ; -- distributed conj.                   e.g. "both - and"
+      Subj ;  -- subjunction,                        e.g. "if"
+      Prep ;  -- preposition, or just case           e.g. "in"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Words of open classes}
+These are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Lexicon}{Lexicon.html} and in 
+additional lexicon modules.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      V ;     -- one-place verb                      e.g. "sleep" 
+      V2 ;    -- two-place verb                      e.g. "love"
+      V3 ;    -- three-place verb                    e.g. "show"
+      VV ;    -- verb-phrase-complement verb         e.g. "want"
+      VS ;    -- sentence-complement verb            e.g. "claim"
+      VQ ;    -- question-complement verb            e.g. "ask"
+      VA ;    -- adjective-complement verb           e.g. "look"
+      V2A ;   -- verb with NP and AP complement      e.g. "paint"
+  
+      A ;     -- one-place adjective                 e.g. "warm"
+      A2 ;    -- two-place adjective                 e.g. "divisible"
+  
+      N ;     -- common noun                         e.g. "house"
+      N2 ;    -- relational noun                     e.g. "son"
+      N3 ;    -- three-place relational noun         e.g. "connection"
+      PN ;    -- proper name                         e.g. "Paris"
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Infrastructure with common implementations.}
+This module defines the categories that uniformly have the linearization
+\texttt{\{s : Str\}} in all languages. 
+Moreover, this module defines the abstract parameters of tense, polarity, and
+anteriority, which are used in \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html} to generate different
+forms of sentences. Together they give 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 sentence forms.
+These tenses are defined for all languages in the library. More tenses
+can be defined in the language extensions, e.g. the \textit{passé simple} of
+Romance languages.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Common = {
+  
+    cat
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Top-level units}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Text}{Text.html}: \texttt{Text}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      Text ;  -- text consisting of several phrases  e.g. "He is here. Why?"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html}:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      Phr ;   -- phrase in a text                    e.g. "but be quiet please"
+      Utt ;   -- sentence, question, word...         e.g. "be quiet"
+      Voc ;   -- vocative or "please"                e.g. "my darling"
+      PConj ; -- phrase-beginning conj.              e.g. "therefore"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      SC ;    -- embedded sentence or question       e.g. "that it rains"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Adverb}{Adverb.html}.  
+Many adverbs are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      Adv ;   -- verb-phrase-modifying adverb,       e.g. "in the house"
+      AdV ;   -- adverb directly attached to verb    e.g. "always"
+      AdA ;   -- adjective-modifying adverb,         e.g. "very"
+      AdN ;   -- numeral-modifying adverb,           e.g. "more than"
+      IAdv ;  -- interrogative adverb                e.g. "why"
+      CAdv ;  -- comparative adverb                  e.g. "more"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Tense, polarity, and anteriority}
+\begin{verbatim}
+      Tense ; -- tense: present, past, future, conditional
+      Pol ;   -- polarity: positive, negative
+      Ant ;   -- anteriority: simultaneous, anterior
+  
+    fun
+      PPos, PNeg : Pol ;           -- I sleep/don't sleep
+  
+      TPres  : Tense ;                
+      ASimul : Ant ;
+      TPast, TFut, TCond : Tense ; -- I slept/will sleep/would sleep --# notpresent
+      AAnter : Ant ;               -- I have slept                   --# notpresent
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsection{Phrase category modules}
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Adjectives and adjectival phrases}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Adjective = Cat ** {
+  
+    fun
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The principal ways of forming an adjectival phrase are
+positive, comparative, relational, reflexive-relational, and
+elliptic-relational.
+(The superlative use is covered in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}.\texttt{SuperlA}.)
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PositA  : A -> AP ;         -- warm
+      ComparA : A -> NP -> AP ;   -- warmer than Spain
+      ComplA2 : A2 -> NP -> AP ;  -- divisible by 2
+      ReflA2  : A2 -> AP ;        -- divisible by itself
+      UseA2   : A2 -> A ;         -- divisible
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sentence and question complements defined for all adjectival
+phrases, although the semantics is only clear for some adjective.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      SentAP  : AP -> SC -> AP ;  -- great that she won, uncertain if she did
+\end{verbatim}
+
+An adjectival phrase can be modified by an \textbf{adadjective}, such as \textit{very}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AdAP    : AdA -> AP -> AP ; -- very uncertain
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The formation of adverbs from adjective (e.g. \textit{quickly}) is covered
+by \htmladdnormallink{Adverb}{Adverb.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Adverbs and adverbial phrases}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Adverb = Cat ** {
+  
+    fun
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The two main ways of forming adverbs are from adjectives and by
+prepositions from noun phrases.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PositAdvAdj : A -> Adv ;                 -- quickly
+      PrepNP      : Prep -> NP -> Adv ;        -- in the house
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparative adverbs have a noun phrase or a sentence as object of
+comparison.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      ComparAdvAdj  : CAdv -> A -> NP -> Adv ; -- more quickly than John
+      ComparAdvAdjS : CAdv -> A -> S -> Adv ;  -- more quickly than he runs
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs can be modified by 'adadjectives', just like adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AdAdv  : AdA -> Adv -> Adv ;             -- very quickly
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Subordinate clauses can function as adverbs.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      SubjS : Subj -> S -> Adv ;               -- when he arrives
+      AdvSC : SC -> Adv ;                      -- that he arrives ---- REMOVE?
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison adverbs also work as numeral adverbs.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AdnCAdv : CAdv -> AdN ;                  -- more (than five)
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Coordination}
+Coordination is defined for many different categories; here is
+a sample. The rules apply to \textbf{lists} of two or more elements,
+and define two general patterns: 
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item ordinary conjunction: X,...X and X
+\item distributed conjunction: both X,...,X and X
+\end{itemize}
+
+\textbf{Note}. This module uses right-recursive lists. If backward
+compatibility with API 0.9 is needed, use
+\htmladdnormallink{SeqConjunction}{SeqConjunction.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Conjunction = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Rules}
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      ConjS    : Conj -> [S] -> S ;     -- "John walks and Mary runs"
+      ConjAP   : Conj -> [AP] -> AP ;   -- "even and prime"
+      ConjNP   : Conj -> [NP] -> NP ;   -- "John or Mary"
+      ConjAdv  : Conj -> [Adv] -> Adv ; -- "quickly or slowly"
+  
+      DConjS   : DConj -> [S] -> S ;    -- "either John walks or Mary runs"
+      DConjAP  : DConj -> [AP] -> AP ;  -- "both even and prime"
+      DConjNP  : DConj -> [NP] -> NP ;  -- "either John or Mary"
+      DConjAdv : DConj -> [Adv] -> Adv; -- "both badly and slowly"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Categories}
+These categories are only used in this module.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    cat
+      [S]{2} ; 
+      [Adv]{2} ; 
+      [NP]{2} ; 
+      [AP]{2} ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{List constructors}
+The list constructors are derived from the list notation and therefore
+not given explicitly. But here are their type signatures:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    --  BaseC : C -> C   -> [C] ;  -- for C = S, AP, NP, Adv
+    --  ConsC : C -> [C] -> [C] ;
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Idiomatic expressions}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Idiom = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This module defines constructions that are formed in fixed ways,
+often different even in closely related languages.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      ImpersCl  : VP -> Cl ;        -- it rains
+      GenericCl : VP -> Cl ;        -- one sleeps
+  
+      CleftNP   : NP  -> RS -> Cl ; -- it is you who did it
+      CleftAdv  : Adv -> S  -> Cl ; -- it is yesterday she arrived
+  
+      ExistNP   : NP -> Cl ;        -- there is a house
+      ExistIP   : IP -> QCl ;       -- which houses are there
+  
+      ProgrVP   : VP -> VP ;        -- be sleeping
+  
+      ImpPl1    : VP -> Utt ;       -- let's go
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{The construction of nouns, noun phrases, and determiners}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Noun = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Noun phrases}
+The three main types of noun phrases are
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item common nouns with determiners
+\item proper names
+\item pronouns
+\end{itemize}
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      DetCN   : Det -> CN -> NP ;   -- the man
+      UsePN   : PN -> NP ;          -- John
+      UsePron : Pron -> NP ;        -- he
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Pronouns are defined in the module \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}.
+A noun phrase already formed can be modified by a \texttt{Predet}erminer.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PredetNP : Predet -> NP -> NP; -- only the man 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+A noun phrase can also be postmodified by the past participle of a
+verb or by an adverb.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PPartNP : NP -> V2  -> NP ;    -- the number squared
+      AdvNP   : NP -> Adv -> NP ;    -- Paris at midnight
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Determiners}
+The determiner has a fine-grained structure, in which a 'nucleus'
+quantifier and two optional parts can be discerned. 
+The cardinal numeral is only available for plural determiners.
+(This is modified from CLE by further dividing their \texttt{Num} into 
+cardinal and ordinal.)
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      DetSg : QuantSg ->        Ord -> Det ;  -- this best man
+      DetPl : QuantPl -> Num -> Ord -> Det ;  -- these five best men
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Quantifiers that have both forms can be used in both ways.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      SgQuant : Quant -> QuantSg ;            -- this
+      PlQuant : Quant -> QuantPl ;            -- these
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Pronouns have possessive forms. Genitives of other kinds
+of noun phrases are not given here, since they are not possible
+in e.g. Romance languages.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PossPron : Pron -> Quant ;    -- my (house)
+\end{verbatim}
+
+All parts of the determiner can be empty, except \texttt{Quant}, which is
+the \textit{kernel} of a determiner.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      NoNum  : Num ;
+      NoOrd  : Ord ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\texttt{Num} consists of either digits or numeral words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      NumInt     : Int -> Num ;     -- 51
+      NumNumeral : Numeral -> Num ; -- fifty-one
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The construction of numerals is defined in \htmladdnormallink{Numeral}{Numeral.html}.
+\texttt{Num} can  be modified by certain adverbs.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AdNum : AdN -> Num -> Num ;   -- almost 51
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\texttt{Ord} consists of either digits or numeral words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      OrdInt     : Int -> Ord ;     -- 51st
+      OrdNumeral : Numeral -> Ord ; -- fifty-first
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Superlative forms of adjectives behave syntactically in the same way as
+ordinals.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      OrdSuperl : A -> Ord ;        -- largest
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Definite and indefinite constructions are sometimes realized as
+neatly distinct words (Spanish \textit{un, unos ; el, los}) but also without
+any particular word (Finnish; Swedish definites).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      DefArt   : Quant ;            -- the (house), the (houses)
+      IndefArt : Quant ;            -- a (house), (houses)
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns can be used without an article as mass nouns. The resource does
+not distinguish mass nouns from other common nouns, which can result
+in semantically odd expressions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      MassDet  : QuantSg ;          -- (beer)
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Other determiners are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Common nouns}
+Simple nouns can be used as nouns outright.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      UseN : N -> CN ;              -- house
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Relational nouns take one or two arguments.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      ComplN2 : N2 -> NP -> CN ;    -- son of the king
+      ComplN3 : N3 -> NP -> N2 ;    -- flight from Moscow (to Paris)
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Relational nouns can also be used without their arguments.
+The semantics is typically derivative of the relational meaning.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      UseN2   : N2 -> CN ;          -- son
+      UseN3   : N3 -> CN ;          -- flight
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns can be modified by adjectives, relative clauses, and adverbs
+(the last rule will give rise to many 'PP attachement' ambiguities
+when used in connection with verb phrases).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AdjCN   : AP -> CN  -> CN ;   -- big house
+      RelCN   : CN -> RS  -> CN ;   -- house that John owns
+      AdvCN   : CN -> Adv -> CN ;   -- house on the hill
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns can also be modified by embedded sentences and questions.
+For some nouns this makes little sense, but we leave this for applications
+to decide. Sentential complements are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      SentCN  : CN -> SC  -> CN ;   -- fact that John smokes, question if he does
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Apposition}
+This is certainly overgenerating.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      ApposCN : CN -> NP -> CN ;    -- number x, numbers x and y
+  
+  } ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Numerals}
+This grammar defines numerals from 1 to 999999. 
+The implementations are adapted from the
+\htmladdnormallink{numerals library}{http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~aarne/GF/examples/numerals/} 
+which defines numerals for 88 languages.
+The resource grammar implementations add to this inflection (if needed)
+and ordinal numbers.
+\textbf{Note}. Number 1 as defined 
+in the category \texttt{Numeral} here should not be used in the formation of
+noun phrases, and should therefore be removed. Instead, one should use
+\htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}\texttt{.one\_Quant}. This makes the grammar simpler
+because we can assume that numbers form plural noun phrases.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Numeral = Cat ** {
+  
+  cat 
+    Digit ;       -- 2..9
+    Sub10 ;       -- 1..9
+    Sub100 ;      -- 1..99
+    Sub1000 ;     -- 1..999
+    Sub1000000 ;  -- 1..999999
+  
+  fun 
+    num : Sub1000000 -> Numeral ;
+  
+    n2, n3, n4, n5, n6, n7, n8, n9 : Digit ;
+  
+    pot01 : Sub10 ;                               -- 1
+    pot0 : Digit -> Sub10 ;                       -- d * 1
+    pot110 : Sub100 ;                             -- 10
+    pot111 : Sub100 ;                             -- 11
+    pot1to19 : Digit -> Sub100 ;                  -- 10 + d
+    pot0as1 : Sub10 -> Sub100 ;                   -- coercion of 1..9
+    pot1 : Digit -> Sub100 ;                      -- d * 10
+    pot1plus : Digit -> Sub10 -> Sub100 ;         -- d * 10 + n
+    pot1as2 : Sub100 -> Sub1000 ;                 -- coercion of 1..99
+    pot2 : Sub10 -> Sub1000 ;                     -- m * 100
+    pot2plus : Sub10 -> Sub100 -> Sub1000 ;       -- m * 100 + n
+    pot2as3 : Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ;             -- coercion of 1..999
+    pot3 : Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ;                -- m * 1000
+    pot3plus : Sub1000 -> Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- m * 1000 + n
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Phrases and utterances}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Phrase = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+When a phrase is built from an utterance it can be prefixed
+with a phrasal conjunction (such as \textit{but}, \textit{therefore})
+and suffixing with a vocative (typically a noun phrase).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      PhrUtt   : PConj -> Utt -> Voc -> Phr ; -- But go home my friend.
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Utterances are formed from sentences, questions, and imperatives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      UttS     : S -> Utt ;                   -- John walks
+      UttQS    : QS -> Utt ;                  -- is it good
+      UttImpSg : Pol -> Imp -> Utt;           -- (don't) help yourself
+      UttImpPl : Pol -> Imp -> Utt;           -- (don't) help yourselves
+\end{verbatim}
+
+There are also 'one-word utterances'. A typical use of them is
+as answers to questions.
+\textbf{Note}. This list is incomplete. More categories could be covered.
+Moreover, in many languages e.g. noun phrases in different cases
+can be used.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      UttIP   : IP   -> Utt ;                 -- who
+      UttIAdv : IAdv -> Utt ;                 -- why
+      UttNP   : NP   -> Utt ;                 -- this man
+      UttAdv  : Adv  -> Utt ;                 -- here
+      UttVP   : VP   -> Utt ;                 -- to sleep
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The phrasal conjunction is optional. A sentence conjunction
+can also used to prefix an utterance.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      NoPConj   : PConj ;                      
+      PConjConj : Conj -> PConj ;             -- and
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The vocative is optional. Any noun phrase can be made into vocative,
+which may be overgenerating (e.g. \textit{I}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      NoVoc   : Voc ;
+      VocNP   : NP -> Voc ;                   -- my friend
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Questions and interrogative pronouns}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Question = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+A question can be formed from a clause ('yes-no question') or
+with an interrogative.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      QuestCl     : Cl -> QCl ;                  -- does John walk
+      QuestVP     : IP -> VP -> QCl ;            -- who walks
+      QuestSlash  : IP -> Slash -> QCl ;         -- who does John love
+      QuestIAdv   : IAdv -> Cl -> QCl ;          -- why does John walk
+      QuestIComp  : IComp -> NP -> QCl ;         -- where is John
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Interrogative pronouns can be formed with interrogative
+determiners. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      IDetCN  : IDet -> Num -> Ord -> CN -> IP;  -- which five best songs
+      AdvIP   : IP -> Adv -> IP ;                -- who in Europe
+  
+      PrepIP  : Prep -> IP -> IAdv ;             -- with whom
+  
+      CompIAdv : IAdv -> IComp ;                 -- where
+\end{verbatim}
+
+More \texttt{IP}, \texttt{IDet}, and \texttt{IAdv} are defined in
+\htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Relative clauses and pronouns}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Relative = Cat ** {
+  
+    fun
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The simplest way to form a relative clause is from a clause by
+a pronoun similar to \textit{such that}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      RelCl    : Cl -> RCl ;            -- such that John loves her
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The more proper ways are from a verb phrase (formed in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}) 
+or a sentence with a missing noun phrase (formed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      RelVP    : RP -> VP -> RCl ;      -- who loves John
+      RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RCl ;   -- whom John loves
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Relative pronouns are formed from an 'identity element' by prefixing
+or suffixing (depending on language) prepositional phrases.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      IdRP  : RP ;                      -- which
+      FunRP : Prep -> NP -> RP -> RP ;  -- all the roots of which 
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Sentences, clauses, imperatives, and sentential complements}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Sentence = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Clauses}
+The \texttt{NP VP} predication rule form a clause whose linearization
+gives a table of all tense variants, positive and negative.
+Clauses are converted to \texttt{S} (with fixed tense) in \htmladdnormallink{Tensed}{Tensed.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      PredVP    : NP -> VP -> Cl ;         -- John walks
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Using an embedded sentence as a subject is treated separately.
+This can be overgenerating. E.g. \textit{whether you go} as subject
+is only meaningful for some verb phrases.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PredSCVP  : SC -> VP -> Cl ;         -- that you go makes me happy
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Clauses missing object noun phrases}
+This category is a variant of the 'slash category' \texttt{S/NP} of
+GPSG and categorial grammars, which in turn replaces
+movement transformations in the formation of questions
+and relative clauses. Except \texttt{SlashV2}, the construction 
+rules can be seen as special cases of function composition, in
+the style of CCG.
+\textbf{Note} the set is not complete and lacks e.g. verbs with more than 2 places.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      SlashV2   : NP -> V2 -> Slash ;      -- (whom) he sees
+      SlashVVV2 : NP -> VV -> V2 -> Slash; -- (whom) he wants to see 
+      AdvSlash  : Slash -> Adv -> Slash ;  -- (whom) he sees tomorrow
+      SlashPrep : Cl -> Prep -> Slash ;    -- (with whom) he walks 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Imperatives}
+An imperative is straightforwardly formed from a verb phrase.
+It has variation over positive and negative, singular and plural.
+To fix these parameters, see \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      ImpVP     : VP -> Imp ;              -- go
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Embedded sentences}
+Sentences, questions, and infinitival phrases can be used as
+subjects and (adverbial) complements.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      EmbedS    : S  -> SC ;               -- that you go
+      EmbedQS   : QS -> SC ;               -- whether you go
+      EmbedVP   : VP -> SC ;               -- to go
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Sentences}
+These are the 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 forms generated by different
+combinations of tense, polarity, and
+anteriority, which are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Tense}{Tense.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      UseCl  : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> Cl  -> S ;
+      UseQCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> QCl -> QS ;
+      UseRCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> RCl -> RS ;
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Examples for English \texttt{S}/\texttt{Cl}:
+
+Pres  Simul  Pos  ODir  : he sleeps
+Pres  Simul  Neg  ODir  : he doesn't sleep
+Pres  Anter  Pos  ODir  : he has slept
+Pres  Anter  Neg  ODir  : he hasn't slept
+Past  Simul  Pos  ODir  : he slept
+Past  Simul  Neg  ODir  : he didn't sleep
+Past  Anter  Pos  ODir  : he had slept
+Past  Anter  Neg  ODir  : he hadn't slept
+Fut   Simul  Pos  ODir  : he will sleep
+Fut   Simul  Neg  ODir  : he won't sleep
+Fut   Anter  Pos  ODir  : he will have slept
+Fut   Anter  Neg  ODir  : he won't have slept
+Cond  Simul  Pos  ODir  : he would sleep
+Cond  Simul  Neg  ODir  : he wouldn't sleep
+Cond  Anter  Pos  ODir  : he would have slept
+Cond  Anter  Neg  ODir  : he wouldn't have slept
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Structural Words}
+
+Here we have some words belonging to closed classes and appearing
+in all languages we have considered.
+Sometimes they are not really meaningful, e.g. \texttt{we\_Pron} in Spanish
+should be replaced by masculine and feminine variants.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Structural = Cat ** {
+  
+    fun
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This is an alphabetical list of structural words
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    above_Prep : Prep ;
+    after_Prep : Prep ;
+    all_Predet : Predet ;
+    almost_AdA : AdA ;   
+    almost_AdN : AdN ;   
+    although_Subj : Subj ;
+    always_AdV : AdV ;
+    and_Conj : Conj ;
+    because_Subj : Subj ;
+    before_Prep : Prep ;
+    behind_Prep : Prep ;
+    between_Prep : Prep ;
+    both7and_DConj : DConj ;
+    but_PConj : PConj ;
+    by8agent_Prep : Prep ;
+    by8means_Prep : Prep ;
+    can8know_VV : VV ;
+    can_VV : VV ;
+    during_Prep : Prep ;
+    either7or_DConj : DConj ;
+    every_Det : Det ;
+    everybody_NP : NP ;
+    everything_NP : NP ;
+    everywhere_Adv : Adv ;
+    first_Ord : Ord ;
+    few_Det : Det ;
+    from_Prep : Prep ;
+    he_Pron : Pron ;
+    here_Adv : Adv ;
+    here7to_Adv : Adv ;
+    here7from_Adv : Adv ;
+    how_IAdv : IAdv ;
+    how8many_IDet : IDet ;
+    i_Pron : Pron ;
+    if_Subj : Subj ;
+    in8front_Prep : Prep ;
+    in_Prep : Prep ;
+    it_Pron : Pron ;
+    less_CAdv : CAdv ;
+    many_Det : Det ;
+    more_CAdv : CAdv ;
+    most_Predet : Predet ;
+    much_Det : Det ;
+    must_VV : VV ;
+    no_Phr : Phr ;
+    on_Prep : Prep ;
+    one_Quant : QuantSg ;
+    only_Predet : Predet ;
+    or_Conj : Conj ;
+    otherwise_PConj : PConj ;
+    part_Prep : Prep ;
+    please_Voc : Voc ;
+    possess_Prep : Prep ;
+    quite_Adv : AdA ;
+    she_Pron : Pron ;
+    so_AdA : AdA ;
+    someSg_Det : Det ;
+    somePl_Det : Det ;
+    somebody_NP : NP ;
+    something_NP : NP ;
+    somewhere_Adv : Adv ;
+    that_Quant : Quant ;
+    that_NP : NP ;
+    there_Adv : Adv ;
+    there7to_Adv : Adv ;
+    there7from_Adv : Adv ;
+    therefore_PConj : PConj ;
+    these_NP : NP ;
+    they_Pron : Pron ; 
+    this_Quant : Quant ;
+    this_NP : NP ;
+    those_NP : NP ;
+    through_Prep : Prep ;
+    to_Prep : Prep ;
+    too_AdA : AdA ;
+    under_Prep : Prep ;
+    very_AdA : AdA ;
+    want_VV : VV ;
+    we_Pron : Pron ;
+    whatPl_IP : IP ;
+    whatSg_IP : IP ;
+    when_IAdv : IAdv ;
+    when_Subj : Subj ;
+    where_IAdv : IAdv ;
+    whichPl_IDet : IDet ;
+    whichSg_IDet : IDet ;
+    whoPl_IP : IP ;
+    whoSg_IP : IP ;
+    why_IAdv : IAdv ;
+    with_Prep : Prep ;
+    without_Prep : Prep ;
+    yes_Phr : Phr ;
+    youSg_Pron : Pron ;
+    youPl_Pron : Pron ;
+    youPol_Pron : Pron ;
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{Texts}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Text = Common ** {
+  
+    fun
+      TEmpty : Text ;
+      TFullStop : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
+      TQuestMark : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
+      TExclMark : Phr -> Text -> Text ;
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+
+\subsubsection{The construction of verb phrases}
+\begin{verbatim}
+  abstract Verb = Cat ** {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Complementization rules}
+Verb phrases are constructed from verbs by providing their
+complements. There is one rule for each verb category.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    fun
+      UseV     : V   -> VP ;              -- sleep
+      ComplV2  : V2  -> NP -> VP ;        -- use it
+      ComplV3  : V3  -> NP -> NP -> VP ;  -- send a message to her
+  
+      ComplVV  : VV  -> VP -> VP ;        -- want to run
+      ComplVS  : VS  -> S  -> VP ;        -- know that she runs
+      ComplVQ  : VQ  -> QS -> VP ;        -- ask if she runs
+  
+      ComplVA  : VA  -> AP -> VP ;        -- look red
+      ComplV2A : V2A -> NP -> AP -> VP ;  -- paint the house red
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other ways of forming verb phrases}
+Verb phrases can also be constructed reflexively and from
+copula-preceded complements.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      ReflV2   : V2 -> VP ;               -- use itself
+      UseComp  : Comp -> VP ;             -- be warm
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Passivization of two-place verbs is another way to use
+them. In many languages, the result is a participle that
+is used as complement to a copula (\textit{is used}), but other
+auxiliary verbs are possible (Ger. \textit{wird angewendet}, It.
+\textit{viene usato}), as well as special verb forms (Fin. \textit{käytetään},
+Swe. \textit{används}).
+
+\textbf{Note}. the rule can be overgenerating, since the \texttt{V2} need not
+take a direct object.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      PassV2   : V2 -> VP ;               -- be used
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs can be added to verb phrases. Many languages make
+a distinction between adverbs that are attached in the end
+vs. next to (or before) the verb.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      AdvVP    : VP -> Adv -> VP ;        -- sleep here
+      AdVVP    : AdV -> VP -> VP ;        -- always sleep
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\textbf{Agents of passives} are constructed as adverbs with the
+preposition \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}\texttt{.8agent\_Prep}.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Complements to copula}
+Adjectival phrases, noun phrases, and adverbs can be used.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      CompAP   : AP  -> Comp ;            -- (be) small
+      CompNP   : NP  -> Comp ;            -- (be) a soldier
+      CompAdv  : Adv -> Comp ;            -- (be) here
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Coercions}
+Verbs can change subcategorization patterns in systematic ways,
+but this is very much language-dependent. The following two
+work in all the languages we cover.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+      UseVQ   : VQ -> V2 ;                -- ask (a question)
+      UseVS   : VS -> V2 ;                -- know (a secret)
+  
+  }
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsection{Inflectional paradigms}
+Author: 
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{Danish Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoDan.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsDan = 
+    open 
+      (Predef=Predef), 
+      Prelude, 
+      CommonScand, 
+      ResDan, 
+      MorphoDan, 
+      CatDan in {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    utrum   : Gender ;
+    neutrum : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over case names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Case : Type ;
+  
+    nominative : Case ;
+    genitive   : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type = Str ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the
+last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (dreng,drengen,drenger,drengene : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function takes the singular indefinite form
+and computes the other forms and the gender by a heuristic.
+The heuristic is that all nouns are \texttt{utrum} with the
+plural ending \textit{er///}r//.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Giving gender manually makes the heuristic more reliable.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This function takes the singular indefinite and definite forms; the
+gender is computed from the definite form.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This function takes the singular indefinite and definite and the plural
+indefinite
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk3N : (bil,bilen,biler : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns,
+such as \textit{fotboll}. 
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a
+shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to  
+form other prepositions.
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and
+\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN}
+and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- John, John's
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nounPN : N -> PN ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular
+genitive, you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (galen,galet,galne : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For regular adjectives, the other forms are derived. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+In most cases, two forms are enough.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison adjectives may need as many as five forms. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkADeg : (stor,stort,store,storre,storst : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending
+with \textit{ig}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regADeg : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Just the comparison forms can be irregular.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregADeg : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk3ADeg : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ;
+    mk2ADeg : (bred,bredt        : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If comparison is formed by \textit{mer, //mest}, as in general for//
+long adjective, the following pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Prepositions}
+A preposition is just a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+The worst case needs six forms.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV : (spise,spiser,spises,spiste,spist,spis : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The 'regular verb' function is the first conjugation.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : (snakke : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2V : (leve,levde : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregDan}.
+In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket  : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs with //være// as auxiliary}
+By default, the auxiliary is \textit{have}. This function changes it to \textit{være}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vaereV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle}
+The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    partV  : V -> Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs}
+Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as
+reflexive e.g. \textit{ångra sig}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    depV  : V -> V ;
+    reflV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Str -> Str -> V3 ;    -- speak, with, about
+    dirV3    : V -> Str -> V3 ;           -- give,_,to
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                  -- give,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;
+    mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common
+
+
+\subsubsection{English Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003--2005
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoEng.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+The following modules are presupposed:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsEng = open 
+    (Predef=Predef), 
+    Prelude, 
+    MorphoEng,
+    CatEng
+    in {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    human     : Gender ;
+    nonhuman  : Gender ;
+    masculine : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over case names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Case : Type ;
+  
+    nominative : Case ;
+    genitive   : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions are used in many-argument functions for rection.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give all four forms and the semantic gender.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function captures the variants for nouns ending with
+\textit{s},\textit{sh},\textit{x},\textit{z} or \textit{y}: \textit{kiss - kisses}, \textit{flash - flashes}; 
+\textit{fly - flies} (but \textit{toy - toys}),
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+In practice the worst case is just: give singular and plural nominative.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2N : (man,men : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+All nouns created by the previous functions are marked as
+\texttt{nonhuman}. If you want a \texttt{human} noun, wrap it with the following
+function:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    genderN : Gender -> N -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+A compound noun ia an uninflected string attached to an inflected noun,
+such as \textit{baby boom}, \textit{chief executive officer}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compoundN : Str -> N -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common preposition is \textit{of}, and the following is a
+shortcut for regular relational nouns with \textit{of}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN2 : Str -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to  
+form other prepositions.
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    cnN2 : CN -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+    cnN3 : CN -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- John, John's
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nounPN : N -> PN ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular
+genitive, you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives need two forms: one for
+the adjectival and one for the adverbial form (\textit{free - freely})
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (free,freely : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For regular adjectives, the adverbial form is derived. This holds
+even for cases with the variation \textit{happy - happily}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison adjectives may two more forms. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    ADeg : Type ;
+  
+    mkADeg : (good,better,best,well : Str) -> ADeg ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular pattern recognizes two common variations: 
+\textit{-e} (\textit{rude} - \textit{ruder} - \textit{rudest}) and
+\textit{-y} (\textit{happy - happier - happiest - happily})
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regADeg : Str -> ADeg ;      -- long, longer, longest
+\end{verbatim}
+
+However, the duplication of the final consonant is nor predicted,
+but a separate pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    duplADeg : Str -> ADeg ;      -- fat, fatter, fattest
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If comparison is formed by \textit{more, //most}, as in general for//
+long adjective, the following pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compoundADeg : A -> ADeg ; -- -/more/most ridiculous
+\end{verbatim}
+
+From a given \texttt{ADeg}, it is possible to get back to \texttt{A}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    adegA : ADeg -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Prepositions}
+A preposition as used for rection in the lexicon, as well as to
+build \texttt{PP}s in the resource API, just requires a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+    mkPrep        : Str -> Prep ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+(These two functions are synonyms.)
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+Except for \textit{be}, the worst case needs five forms: the infinitive and
+the third person singular present, the past indicative, and the
+past and present participles.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV : (go, goes, went, gone, going : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular verb function recognizes the special cases where the last
+character is \textit{y} (\textit{cry - cries} but \textit{buy - buys}) or \textit{s}, \textit{sh}, \textit{x}, \textit{z}
+(\textit{fix - fixes}, etc).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following variant duplicates the last letter in the forms like
+\textit{rip - ripped - ripping}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regDuplV : Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregularEng}.
+In practice, it is enough to give three forms, 
+e.g. \textit{drink - drank - drunk}, with a variant indicating consonant
+duplication in the present participle.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregV     : (drink, drank, drunk  : Str) -> V ;
+    irregDuplV : (get,   got,   gotten : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.}
+The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    partV  : V -> Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Reflexive verbs}
+By default, verbs are not reflexive; this function makes them that.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    reflV  : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about
+    dirV3    : V -> Preposition -> V3 ;                -- give,_,to
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                               -- give,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;
+    mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../abstract:../common:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{Finnish Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003--2005
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoFin.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularFin}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+The following modules are presupposed:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsFin = open 
+    (Predef=Predef), 
+    Prelude, 
+    MorphoFin,
+    CatFin
+    in {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+flags optimize=all ;
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    flags optimize=noexpand ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender, number, and (some) case names, 
+we define the following identifiers. The application programmer
+should always use these constants instead of their definitions
+in \texttt{TypesInf}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Number   : Type ;
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+  
+    Case        : Type ;
+    nominative  : Case ; 
+    genitive    : Case ; 
+    partitive   : Case ; 
+    translative : Case ; 
+    inessive    : Case ; 
+    elative     : Case ; 
+    illative    : Case ; 
+    adessive    : Case ; 
+    ablative    : Case ; 
+    allative    : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following type is used for defining \textbf{rection}, i.e. complements
+of many-place verbs and adjective. A complement can be defined by
+just a case, or a pre/postposition and a case.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    prePrep     : Case -> Str -> Prep ;  -- ilman, partitive
+    postPrep    : Case -> Str -> Prep ;  -- takana, genitive
+    postGenPrep :         Str -> Prep ;  -- takana
+    casePrep    : Case ->        Prep ;  -- adessive
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+The worst case gives ten forms and the semantic gender.
+In practice just a couple of forms are needed, to define the different
+stems, vowel alternation, and vowel harmony.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    mkN : (talo,   talon,   talona, taloa, taloon,
+           taloina,taloissa,talojen,taloja,taloihin : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular noun heuristic takes just one form (singular
+nominative) and analyses it to pick the correct paradigm.
+It does automatic grade alternation, and is hence not usable
+for words like \textit{auto} (whose genitive would become \textit{audon}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : (talo : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If \texttt{regN} does not give the correct result, one can try and give 
+two or three forms as follows. Examples of the use of these
+functions are given in \texttt{BasicFin}. Most notably, \texttt{reg2N} is used
+for nouns like \textit{kivi - kiviä}, which would otherwise become like
+\textit{rivi - rivejä}. \texttt{regN3} is used e.g. for 
+\textit{sydän - sydämen - sydämiä}, which would otherwise become
+\textit{sydän - sytämen}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    reg2N : (savi,savia : Str) -> N ;
+    reg3N : (vesi,veden,vesiä : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Some nouns have an unexpected singular partitive, e.g. \textit{meri}, \textit{lumi}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    sgpartN : (meri : N) -> (merta : Str) -> N ;
+    nMeri   : (meri : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The rest of the noun paradigms are mostly covered by the three
+heuristics.
+
+Nouns with partitive \textit{a///}ä// are a large group. 
+To determine for grade and vowel alternation, three forms are usually needed:
+singular nominative and genitive, and plural partitive.
+Examples: \textit{talo}, \textit{kukko}, \textit{huippu}, \textit{koira}, \textit{kukka}, \textit{syylä}, \textit{särki}...
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nKukko : (kukko,kukon,kukkoja : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+A special case are nouns with no alternations: 
+the vowel harmony is inferred from the last letter,
+which must be one of \textit{o}, \textit{u}, \textit{ö}, \textit{y}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nTalo : (talo : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Another special case are nouns where the last two consonants
+undergo regular weak-grade alternation:
+\textit{kukko - kukon}, \textit{rutto - ruton}, \textit{hyppy - hypyn}, \textit{sampo - sammon},
+\textit{kunto - kunnon}, \textit{sisältö - sisällön}, .
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nLukko : (lukko : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\textit{arpi - arven}, \textit{sappi - sapen}, \textit{kampi - kammen};\textit{sylki - syljen}
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nArpi  : (arpi : Str) -> N ;
+    nSylki : (sylki : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Foreign words ending in consonants are actually similar to words like
+\textit{malli///}mallin\textit{/}malleja\textit{, with the exception that the //i} is not attached
+to the singular nominative. Examples: \textit{linux}, \textit{savett}, \textit{screen}.
+The singular partitive form is used to get the vowel harmony. (N.B. more than 
+1-syllabic words ending in \textit{n} would have variant plural genitive and 
+partitive forms, like \textit{sultanien///}sultaneiden//, which are not covered.)
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nLinux : (linuxia : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns of at least 3 syllables ending with \textit{a} or \textit{ä}, like \textit{peruna}, \textit{tavara},
+\textit{rytinä}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nPeruna : (peruna : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following paradigm covers both nouns ending in an aspirated \textit{e}, such as
+\textit{rae}, \textit{perhe}, \textit{savuke}, and also many ones ending in a consonant
+(\textit{rengas}, \textit{kätkyt}). The singular nominative and essive are given.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nRae : (rae, rakeena : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following covers nouns with partitive \textit{ta///}tä//, such as
+\textit{susi}, \textit{vesi}, \textit{pieni}. To get all stems and the vowel harmony, it takes
+the singular nominative, genitive, and essive.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nSusi : (susi,suden,sutta : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns ending with a long vowel, such as \textit{puu}, \textit{pää}, \textit{pii}, \textit{leikkuu},
+are inflected according to the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nPuu : (puu : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+One-syllable diphthong nouns, such as \textit{suo}, \textit{tie}, \textit{työ}, are inflected by
+the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nSuo : (suo : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Many adjectives but also nouns have the nominative ending \textit{nen} which in other
+cases becomes \textit{s}: \textit{nainen}, \textit{ihminen}, \textit{keltainen}. 
+To capture the vowel harmony, we use the partitive form as the argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nNainen : (naista : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following covers some nouns ending with a consonant, e.g.
+\textit{tilaus}, \textit{kaulin}, \textit{paimen}, \textit{laidun}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nTilaus : (tilaus,tilauksena : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Special case:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nKulaus : (kulaus : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following covers nouns like \textit{nauris} and adjectives like \textit{kallis}, \textit{tyyris}.
+The partitive form is taken to get the vowel harmony.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nNauris : (naurista : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Separately-written compound nouns, like \textit{sambal oelek}, \textit{Urho Kekkonen},
+have only their last part inflected.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compN : Str -> N -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns used as functions need a case, of which by far the commonest is
+the genitive.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2  : N -> Prep -> N2 ;
+    genN2 : N -> N2 ;
+  
+    mkN3  : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Proper names can be formed by using declensions for nouns.
+The plural forms are filtered away by the compiler.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPN  : N -> PN ;
+    mkNP  : N -> Number -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives are just like nouns.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : N -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Two-place adjectives need a case for the second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison adjectives have three forms. The comparative and the superlative
+are always inflected in the same way, so the nominative of them is actually
+enough (except for the superlative \textit{paras} of \textit{hyvä}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkADeg : (kiva : N) -> (kivempaa,kivinta : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular adjectives are based on \texttt{regN} in the positive.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : (punainen : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+The grammar does not cover the potential mood and some nominal
+forms. One way to see the coverage is to linearize a verb to
+a table.
+The worst case needs twelve forms, as shown in the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV   : (tulla,tulee,tulen,tulevat,tulkaa,tullaan,
+             tuli,tulin,tulisi,tullut,tultu,tullun : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following heuristics cover more and more verbs.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV  : (soutaa : Str) -> V ;
+    reg2V : (soutaa,souti : Str) -> V ;
+    reg3V : (soutaa,soudan,souti : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The subject case of verbs is by default nominative. This dunction can change it.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    subjcaseV : V -> Case -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The rest of the paradigms are special cases mostly covered by the heuristics.
+A simple special case is the one with just one stem and without grade alternation.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vValua : (valua : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+With two forms, the following function covers a variety of verbs, such as
+\textit{ottaa}, \textit{käyttää}, \textit{löytää}, \textit{huoltaa}, \textit{hiihtää}, \textit{siirtää}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vKattaa : (kattaa, katan : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+When grade alternation is not present, just a one-form special case is needed
+(\textit{poistaa}, \textit{ryystää}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vOstaa : (ostaa : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The following covers 
+\textit{juosta}, \textit{piestä}, \textit{nousta}, \textit{rangaista}, \textit{kävellä}, \textit{surra}, \textit{panna}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vNousta : (nousta, nousen : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This is for one-syllable diphthong verbs like \textit{juoda}, \textit{syödä}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vTuoda : (tuoda : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+All the patterns above have \texttt{nominative} as subject case.
+If another case is wanted, use the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    caseV : Case -> V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The verbs \textit{be} is special.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vOlla : V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Two-place verbs need a case, and can have a pre- or postposition.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If the complement needs just a case, the following special function can be used.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    caseV2 : V -> Case -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Verbs with a direct (accusative) object
+are special, since their complement case is finally decided in syntax.
+But this is taken care of by \texttt{ClauseFin}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ;    -- speak, with, about
+    dirV3    : V -> Case -> V3 ;            -- give,_,to
+    dirdirV3 : V         -> V3 ;            -- acc, allat
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;
+    mkV2V : V -> Prep -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> Prep -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are
+hidden from the document.
+Author: 
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{French Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoFre.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsFre = 
+    open 
+      (Predef=Predef), 
+      Prelude, 
+      CommonRomance, 
+      ResFre, 
+      MorphoFre, 
+      CatFre in {
+  
+    flags optimize=all ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    masculine : Gender ;
+    feminine  : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings
+(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that
+amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the
+'dative' \textit{à}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type ;
+  
+    accusative : Preposition ;
+    genitive   : Preposition ;
+    dative     : Preposition ;
+  
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (oeil,yeux : Str) -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function takes the singular form,
+and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. The plural 
+heuristic currently
+covers the cases \textit{pas-pas}, \textit{prix-prix}, \textit{nez-nez}, 
+\textit{bijou-bijoux}, \textit{cheveu-cheveux}, \textit{plateau-plateaux}, \textit{cheval-chevaux}.
+The gender heuristic is less reliable: it treats as feminine all
+nouns ending with \textit{e} and \textit{ion}, all others as masculine.
+If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test!
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adding gender information widens the scope of the foregoing function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but
+the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numéro de téléphone}. 
+They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since
+they are frequent in lexica.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compN : N -> Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{fille de x}) need a case and a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common cases are the genitive \textit{de} and the dative \textit{à}, 
+with the empty preposition.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    deN2 : N -> N2 ;
+    aN2  : N -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connection de x à y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and
+\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN}
+and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names need a string and a gender.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- Jean
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural,
+you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives need four forms in the worst
+case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (banal,banale,banaux,banalement : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the
+masculine singular. The heuristic takes into account certain
+deviant endings: \textit{banal- -banaux}, \textit{chinois- -chinois}, 
+\textit{heureux-heureuse-heureux}, \textit{italien-italienne}, \textit{jeune-jeune},
+\textit{amer-amère}, \textit{carré- - -carrément}, \textit{joli- - -joliment}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch
+them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in
+modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is
+provided.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    prefA : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives}
+Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two
+adjectives: the positive (\textit{bon}), and the comparative (\textit{meilleure}). 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkADeg : A -> A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If comparison is formed by \textit{plus}, as usual in French,
+the following pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compADeg : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For prefixed adjectives, the following function is
+provided.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    prefA : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{toujours}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+Irregular verbs are given in the module \texttt{VerbsFre}. 
+If a verb should be missing in that list, the module
+\texttt{BeschFre} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} book.
+
+Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive \textit{er} or \textit{ir}, the
+latter with plural present indicative forms as \textit{finissons}.
+The regular verb function is the first conjugation recognizes
+these endings, as well as the variations among
+\textit{aimer, céder, placer, peser, jeter, placer, manger, assiéger, payer}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes, however, it is not predictable which variant of the \textit{er}
+conjugation is to be selected. Then it is better to use the function
+that gives the third person singular present indicative and future 
+((\textit{il}) \textit{jette}, \textit{jettera}) as second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    reg3V : (jeter,jette,jettera : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The function \texttt{regV} gives all verbs the compound auxiliary \textit{avoir}.
+To change it to \textit{être}, use the following function. Reflexive implies \textit{être}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    etreV : V -> V ;
+    reflV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    v2V : V2 -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, à, de
+    dirV3    : V -> Preposition -> V3 ;                -- donner,_,à
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                               -- donner,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;  -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler"
+    deVV  : V -> VV ;  -- "j'essaie de parler"
+    aVV   : V -> VV ;  -- "j'arrive à parler"
+    mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> Preposition -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{German Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta \& Harald Hammarström 2003--2006
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoGer.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularGer}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsGer = open 
+    (Predef=Predef), 
+    Prelude, 
+    MorphoGer,
+    CatGer
+    in {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender    : Type ; 
+  
+    masculine : Gender ;
+    feminine  : Gender ;
+    neuter    : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over case names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Case       : Type ; 
+  
+    nominative : Case ;
+    accusative : Case ;
+    dative     : Case ;
+    genitive   : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number    : Type ; 
+  
+    singular  : Number ;
+    plural    : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give all four singular forms, two plural forms (others + dative),
+and the gender.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN : (x1,_,_,_,_,x6 : Str) -> Gender -> N ; 
+                                   -- mann, mann, manne, mannes, männer, männern
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular heuristics recognizes some suffixes, from which it
+guesses the gender and the declension: \textit{e, ung, ion} give the
+feminine with plural ending \textit{-n, -en}, and the rest are masculines
+with the plural \textit{-e} (without Umlaut).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The 'almost regular' case is much like the information given in an ordinary
+dictionary. It takes the singular and plural nominative and the
+gender, and infers the other forms from these.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    reg2N : (x1,x2 : Str) -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Relational nouns need a preposition. The most common is \textit{von} with
+the dative. Some prepositions are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{StructuralGer}{StructuralGer.html}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2  : N -> Prep -> N2 ;
+    vonN2 : N -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Use the function \texttt{mkPrep} or see the section on prepositions below to  
+form other prepositions.
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{die Verbindung von x nach y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows
+The regular genitive is  \textit{s}, omitted after \textit{s}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPN  : (karolus, karoli : Str) -> PN ; -- karolus, karoli
+    regPN : (Johann : Str) -> PN ;          -- Johann, Johanns ; Johannes, Johannes
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Adjectives need three forms, one for each degree.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (x1,_,x3 : Str) -> A ; -- gut,besser,beste 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular adjective formation works for most cases, and includes
+variations such as \textit{teuer - teurer}, \textit{böse - böser}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Invariable adjective are a special case. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    invarA : Str -> A ;            -- prima
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Two-place adjectives are formed by adding a preposition to an adjective.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are just strings.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Prepositions}
+A preposition is formed from a string and a case.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPrep : Str -> Case -> Prep ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Often just a case with the empty string is enough.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    accPrep : Prep ;
+    datPrep : Prep ;
+    genPrep : Prep ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+A couple of common prepositions (always with the dative).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    von_Prep : Prep ;
+    zu_Prep  : Prep ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+The worst-case constructor needs six forms:
+
+\begin{itemize}
+\item Infinitive, 
+\item 3p sg pres. indicative, 
+\item 2p sg imperative, 
+\item 1/3p sg imperfect indicative, 
+\item 1/3p sg imperfect subjunctive (because this uncommon form can have umlaut)
+\item the perfect participle 
+\end{itemize}
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV : (x1,_,_,_,_,x6 : Str) -> V ;   -- geben, gibt, gib, gab, gäbe, gegeben
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Weak verbs are sometimes called regular verbs.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : Str -> V ;                    -- führen
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Irregular verbs use Ablaut and, in the worst cases, also Umlaut.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregV : (x1,_,_,_,x5 : Str) -> V ; -- sehen, sieht, sah, sähe, gesehen
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To remove the past participle prefix \textit{ge}, e.g. for the verbs
+prefixed by \textit{be-, ver-}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    no_geV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To add a movable suffix e.g. \textit{auf(fassen)}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    prefixV : Str -> V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To change the auxiliary from \textit{haben} (default) to \textit{sein} and
+vice-versa.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    seinV  : V -> V ;
+    habenV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Reflexive verbs can take reflexive pronouns of different cases.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    reflV  : V -> Case -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object
+(accusative, transitive verbs). There is also a case for dative objects.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Prep -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+    datV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ;  -- speak, with, about
+    dirV3    : V -> Prep -> V3 ;                -- give,_,to
+    accdatV3 : V -> V3 ;                               -- give,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;
+    mkV2V : V -> Prep -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Prep -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{Italian Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoIta.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsIta = 
+    open 
+      (Predef=Predef), 
+      Prelude, 
+      CommonRomance, 
+      ResIta, 
+      MorphoIta, 
+      BeschIta,
+      CatIta in {
+  
+    flags optimize=all ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    masculine : Gender ;
+    feminine  : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings
+(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that
+amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the
+'dative' \textit{à}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type ;
+  
+    accusative : Preposition ;
+    genitive   : Preposition ;
+    dative     : Preposition ;
+  
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (uomi,uomini : Str) -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function takes the singular form and the gender,
+and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. 
+The heuristic says that the gender is feminine for nouns
+ending with \textit{a}, and masculine for all other words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To force a different gender, use one of the following functions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mascN : N -> N ;
+    femN  : N -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but
+the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numéro de téléphone}. 
+They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since
+they are frequent in lexica.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compN : N -> Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{figlio di x}) need a case and a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common cases are the genitive \textit{di} and the dative \textit{a}, 
+with the empty preposition.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    diN2 : N -> N2 ;
+    aN2  : N -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connessione di x a y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and
+\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN}
+and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names need a string and a gender.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- Jean
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural,
+you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst
+case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (solo,sola,soli,sole, solamente : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the
+masculine singular. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch
+them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in
+modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is
+provided.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    prefA : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives}
+Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two
+adjectives: the positive (\textit{buono}), and the comparative (\textit{migliore}). 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkADeg : A -> A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If comparison is formed by \textit{più}, as usual in Italian,
+the following pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compADeg : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular pattern is the same as \texttt{regA} for plain adjectives, 
+with comparison by \textit{plus}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regADeg : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{sempre}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive \textit{er} or \textit{ir}, the
+latter with plural present indicative forms as \textit{finissons}.
+The regular verb function is the first conjugation recognizes
+these endings, as well as the variations among
+\textit{aimer, céder, placer, peser, jeter, placer, manger, assiéger, payer}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The module \texttt{BeschIta} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle}
+book. To use them in the category \texttt{V}, wrap them with the function
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    verboV : Verbo -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The function \texttt{regV} gives all verbs the compound auxiliary \textit{avere}.
+To change it to \textit{essere}, use the following function.
+Reflexive implies \textit{essere}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    essereV : V -> V ;
+    reflV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    v2V : V2 -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, à, de
+    dirV3    : V -> Preposition -> V3 ;                -- donner,_,à
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                               -- donner,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;  -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler"
+    deVV  : V -> VV ;  -- "j'essaie de parler"
+    aVV   : V -> VV ;  -- "j'arrive à parler"
+    mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> Preposition -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{The definitions of the paradigms}
+The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are
+hidden from the document.
+Author: 
+Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{Norwegian Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoNor.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsNor = 
+    open 
+      (Predef=Predef), 
+      Prelude, 
+      CommonScand, 
+      ResNor, 
+      MorphoNor, 
+      CatNor in {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    masculine : Gender ;
+    feminine  : Gender ;
+    neutrum   : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over case names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Case : Type ;
+  
+    nominative : Case ;
+    genitive   : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type = Str ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the
+last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (dreng,drengen,drenger,drengene : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function takes the singular indefinite form
+and computes the other forms and the gender by a heuristic.
+The heuristic is that nouns ending \textit{e} are feminine like \textit{kvinne},
+all others are masculine like \textit{bil}. 
+If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test!
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Giving gender manually makes the heuristic more reliable.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This function takes the singular indefinite and definite forms; the
+gender is computed from the definite form.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns,
+such as \textit{fotboll}. 
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a
+shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to  
+form other prepositions.
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and
+\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN}
+and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- John, John's
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nounPN : N -> PN ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular
+genitive, you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (galen,galet,galne : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For regular adjectives, the other forms are derived. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+In most cases, two forms are enough.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison adjectives may need as many as five forms. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkADeg : (stor,stort,store,storre,storst : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending
+with \textit{ig}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regADeg : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Just the comparison forms can be irregular.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregADeg : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk3ADeg : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ;
+    mk2ADeg : (bred,bredt        : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If comparison is formed by \textit{mer, //mest}, as in general for//
+long adjective, the following pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Prepositions}
+A preposition is just a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+The worst case needs six forms.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV : (spise,spiser,spises,spiste,spist,spis : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The 'regular verb' function is the first conjugation.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : (snakke : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2V : (leve,levde : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregNor}.
+In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket  : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs with //være// as auxiliary}
+By default, the auxiliary is \textit{have}. This function changes it to \textit{være}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    vaereV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.}
+The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    partV  : V -> Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs.}
+Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as
+reflexive e.g. \textit{ångra sig}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    depV  : V -> V ;
+    reflV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Str -> Str -> V3 ;    -- speak, with, about
+    dirV3    : V -> Str -> V3 ;           -- give,_,to
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                  -- give,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;
+    mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common
+
+
+\subsubsection{Russian Lexical Paradigms}
+Janna Khegai 2003--2005
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoEng.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+The following modules are presupposed:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsRus = open 
+    (Predef=Predef), 
+    Prelude, 
+    MorphoRus,
+    CatRus,
+    NounRus
+    in {
+  
+  flags  coding=utf8 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ;
+    masculine : Gender ;
+    feminine  : Gender ;
+    neuter    : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over case names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Case : Type ;
+  
+    nominative    : Case ;
+    genitive      : Case ;
+    dative        : Case ;
+    accusative    : Case ; 
+    instructive   : Case ;
+    prepositional : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+In some (written in English) textbooks accusative case 
+is put on the second place. However, we follow the case order 
+standard for Russian textbooks.
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ;
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Best case: indeclinabe nouns: \textit{кофе}, \textit{пальто}, \textit{ВУЗ}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Animacy: Type ; 
+  
+    animate: Animacy;
+    inanimate: Animacy; 
+  
+     mkIndeclinableNoun: Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> N ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Worst case - give six singular forms:
+Nominative, Genetive, Dative, Accusative, Instructive and Prepositional;
+corresponding six plural forms and the gender.
+May be the number of forms needed can be reduced, 
+but this requires a separate investigation.
+Animacy parameter (determining whether the Accusative form is equal 
+to the Nominative or the Genetive one) is actually of no help, 
+since there are a lot of exceptions and the gain is just one form less.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> Gender -> Animacy -> N ; 
+  
+       -- мужчина, мужчины, мужчине, мужчину, мужчиной, мужчине
+       -- мужчины, мужчин, мужчинам, мужчин, мужчинами, мужчинах
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function captures the variants for some popular nouns 
+endings below:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Here are some common patterns. The list is far from complete.
+Feminine patterns.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nMashina   : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-а", Inst -"машин-ой"
+    nEdinica   : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-а", Inst -"единиц-ей"
+    nZhenchina : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, animate, ending with "-a"
+    nNoga      : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "г_к_х-a"
+    nMalyariya  : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ия"   
+    nTetya     : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, animate, ending with "-я"   
+    nBol       : Str -> N ;    -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ь"(soft sign)     
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Neuter patterns. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nObezbolivauchee : Str -> N ;   -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-ee" 
+    nProizvedenie : Str -> N ;   -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-e" 
+    nChislo : Str -> N ;   -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-o" 
+    nZhivotnoe : Str -> N ;    -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ень"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Masculine patterns. 
+Ending with consonant: 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  nPepel : Str -> N ;    -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ел"- "пеп-ла"
+  
+    nBrat: Str -> N ;   -- animate, брат-ья
+    nStul: Str -> N ;    -- same as above, but inanimate
+    nMalush : Str -> N ; -- малышей
+    nPotolok : Str -> N ; -- потол-ок - потол-ка
+  
+   -- the next four differ in plural nominative and/or accusative form(s) :
+    nBank: Str -> N ;    -- банк-и (Nom=Acc)
+    nStomatolog : Str -> N ;  -- same as above, but animate
+    nAdres     : Str -> N ;     -- адрес-а (Nom=Acc)
+    nTelefon   : Str -> N ;     -- телефон-ы (Nom=Acc)
+  
+    nNol       : Str -> N ;    -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ь" (soft sign)
+    nUroven    : Str -> N ;    -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ень"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Nouns used as functions need a preposition. The most common is with Genitive.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkFun  : N -> Prep -> N2 ;
+    mkN2 : N -> N2 ;
+    mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Proper names.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPN  : Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> PN ;          -- "Иван", "Маша"
+    nounPN : N -> PN ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+On the top level, it is maybe \texttt{CN} that is used rather than \texttt{N}, and
+\texttt{NP} rather than \texttt{PN}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkCN  : N -> CN ;
+    mkNP  : Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> NP ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison (only positive degree) one-place adjectives need 28 (4 by 7)
+forms in the worst case:
+Masculine  $|$ Feminine $|$ Neutral $|$ Plural
+Nominative
+Genitive
+Dative
+Accusative Inanimate
+Accusative Animate
+Instructive
+Prepositional
+Notice that 4 short forms, which exist for some adjectives are not included 
+in the current description, otherwise there would be 32 forms for 
+positive degree.
+mkA : ( : Str) -$>$ A ;
+The regular function captures the variants for some popular adjective
+endings below:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     regA : Str -> Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Invariable adjective is a special case.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     adjInvar : Str -> A ;          -- khaki, mini, hindi, netto
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Some regular patterns depending on the ending.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     AStaruyj : Str -> Str -> A ;             -- ending with "-ый"
+     AMalenkij : Str -> Str -> A ;            -- ending with "-ий", Gen - "маленьк-ого"
+     AKhoroshij : Str -> Str -> A ;         --  ending with "-ий", Gen - "хорош-его"
+       AMolodoj : Str -> Str -> A ;             -- ending with "-ой", 
+                                             -- plural - молод-ые"
+     AKakoj_Nibud : Str -> Str -> Str -> A ;  -- ending with "-ой", 
+                                             -- plural - "как-ие"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition and a case as extra arguments.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     mkA2 : A -> Str -> Case -> A2 ;  -- "делим на"
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison adjectives need a positive adjective 
+(28 forms without short forms). 
+Taking only one comparative form (non-syntaxic) and 
+only one superlative form (syntaxic) we can produce the
+comparison adjective with only one extra argument -
+non-syntaxic comparative form.
+Syntaxic forms are based on the positive forms.
+mkADeg : A -$>$ Str -$>$ ADeg ;
+On top level, there are adjectival phrases. The most common case is
+just to use a one-place adjective. 
+ap : A  -$>$ IsPostfixAdj -$>$ AP ;
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+In our lexicon description (\textit{Verbum}) there are 62 forms: 
+2 (Voice) by \{ 1 (infinitive) + [2(number) by 3 (person)](imperative) + 
+[ [2(Number) by 3(Person)](present) + [2(Number) by 3(Person)](future) + 
+4(GenNum)(past) ](indicative)+ 4 (GenNum) (subjunctive) \} 
+Participles (Present and Past) and Gerund forms are not included, 
+since they fuction more like Adjectives and Adverbs correspondingly
+rather than verbs. Aspect regarded as an inherent parameter of a verb.
+Notice, that some forms are never used for some verbs. Actually, 
+the majority of verbs do not have many of the forms.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  Voice: Type; 
+  Aspect: Type; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Tense : Type;  
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  Bool: Type;
+  Conjugation: Type ;
+  
+  first: Conjugation; -- "гуля-Ешь, гуля-Ем"
+  firstE: Conjugation; -- Verbs with vowel "ё": "даёшь" (give), "пьёшь" (drink)  
+  second: Conjugation; -- "вид-Ишь, вид-Им"
+  mixed: Conjugation; -- "хоч-Ешь - хот-Им"
+  dolzhen: Conjugation; -- irregular
+  
+  true: Bool;
+  false: Bool;
+  
+  active: Voice ;
+  passive: Voice ;
+  imperfective: Aspect;
+  perfective: Aspect ;  
+\end{verbatim}
+
+present : Tense ;
+past : Tense ;
+The worst case need 6 forms of the present tense in indicative mood
+(\textit{я бегу}, \textit{ты бежишь}, \textit{он бежит}, \textit{мы бежим}, \textit{вы бежите}, \textit{они бегут}),
+a past form (singular, masculine: \textit{я бежал}), an imperative form 
+(singular, second person: \textit{беги}), an infinitive (\textit{бежать}).
+Inherent aspect should also be specified.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     mkVerbum : Aspect -> (_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Common conjugation patterns are two conjugations: 
+first - verbs ending with \textit{-ать/-ять} and second - \textit{-ить/-еть}.
+Instead of 6 present forms of the worst case, we only need
+a present stem and one ending (singular, first person):
+\textit{я люб-лю}, \textit{я жд-у}, etc. To determine where the border
+between stem and ending lies it is sufficient to compare 
+first person from with second person form:
+\textit{я люб-лю}, \textit{ты люб-ишь}. Stems shoud be the same.
+So the definition for verb \textit{любить}  looks like:
+regV Imperfective Second \textit{люб} \textit{лю} \textit{любил} \textit{люби} \textit{любить};
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     regV :Aspect -> Conjugation -> (_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For writing an application grammar one usualy doesn't need
+the whole inflection table, since each verb is used in 
+a particular context that determines some of the parameters
+(Tense and Voice while Aspect is fixed from the beginning) for certain usage. 
+The \textit{V} type, that have these parameters fixed. 
+We can extract the \textit{V} from the lexicon.
+mkV: Verbum -$>$ Voice -$>$  V ;
+mkPresentV: Verbum -$>$ Voice -$>$ V ;
+Two-place verbs, and the special case with direct object. Notice that
+a particle can be included in a \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+     mkV2     : V   -> Str -> Case -> V2 ;   -- "войти в дом"; "в", accusative
+     mkV3  : V -> Str -> Str -> Case -> Case -> V3 ; -- "сложить письмо в конверт"
+     dirV2    : V -> V2 ;                    -- "видеть", "любить"
+     tvDirDir : V -> V3 ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{Spanish Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoSpa.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsSpa = 
+    open 
+      (Predef=Predef), 
+      Prelude, 
+      CommonRomance, 
+      ResSpa, 
+      MorphoSpa, 
+      BeschSpa,
+      CatSpa in {
+  
+    flags optimize=all ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    masculine : Gender ;
+    feminine  : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings
+(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that
+amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the
+'dative' \textit{à}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type ;
+  
+    accusative : Preposition ;
+    genitive   : Preposition ;
+    dative     : Preposition ;
+  
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: two forms (singular + plural),
+and the gender.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (_,_ : Str) -> Gender -> N ;   -- uomo, uomini, masculine
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function takes the singular form and the gender,
+and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. 
+The heuristic says that the gender is feminine for nouns
+ending with \textit{a} or \textit{z}, and masculine for all other words.
+Nouns ending with \textit{a}, \textit{o}, \textit{e} have the plural with \textit{s},
+those ending with \textit{z} have \textit{ces} in plural; all other nouns
+have \textit{es} as plural ending. The accent is not dealt with.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To force a different gender, use one of the following functions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mascN : N -> N ;
+    femN  : N -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but
+the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numéro de téléphone}. 
+They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since
+they are frequent in lexica.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compN : N -> Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{fille de x}) need a case and a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common cases are the genitive \textit{de} and the dative \textit{a}, 
+with the empty preposition.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    deN2 : N -> N2 ;
+    aN2  : N -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connessione di x a y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and
+\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN}
+and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names need a string and a gender.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- Jean
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural,
+you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst
+case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (solo,sola,soli,sole, solamente : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the
+masculine singular. The types of adjectives that are recognized are
+\textit{alto}, \textit{fuerte}, \textit{util}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch
+them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in
+modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is
+provided.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    prefA : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives}
+Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two
+adjectives: the positive (\textit{bueno}), and the comparative (\textit{mejor}). 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkADeg : A -> A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+If comparison is formed by \textit{mas}, as usual in Spanish,
+the following pattern is used:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compADeg : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular pattern is the same as \texttt{regA} for plain adjectives, 
+with comparison by \textit{mas}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regADeg : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{siempre}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+Regular verbs are ones inflected like \textit{cortar}, \textit{deber}, or \textit{vivir}.
+The regular verb function is the first conjugation (\textit{ar}) recognizes
+the variations corresponding to the patterns
+\textit{actuar, cazar, guiar, pagar, sacar}. The module \texttt{BeschSpa} gives
+the complete set of \textit{Bescherelle} conjugations.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The module \texttt{BeschSpa} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle}
+book. To use them in the category \texttt{V}, wrap them with the function
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    verboV : Verbum -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form reflexive verbs:
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    reflV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Verbs with a deviant passive participle: just give the participle
+in masculine singular form as second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    special_ppV : V -> Str -> V ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    v2V : V2 -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, à, de
+    dirV3    : V -> Preposition -> V3 ;                -- donner,_,à
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                               -- donner,_,_
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;  -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler"
+    deVV  : V -> VV ;  -- "j'essaie de parler"
+    aVV   : V -> VV ;  -- "j'arrive à parler"
+    mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> Preposition -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V  : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\commOut{Produced by 
+gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator.
+(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.}
+
+==
+
+\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude
+
+
+\subsubsection{Swedish Lexical Paradigms}
+Aarne Ranta 2003
+
+This is an API to the user of the resource grammar 
+for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
+expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
+
+Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
+accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. 
+
+The main difference with \texttt{MorphoSwe.gf} is that the types
+referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
+had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
+than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
+
+The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following:
+first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
+regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an
+escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}.
+However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
+separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected
+words.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  resource ParadigmsSwe = 
+    open 
+      (Predef=Predef), 
+      Prelude, 
+      CommonScand, 
+      ResSwe, 
+      MorphoSwe, 
+      CatSwe in {
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Parameters}
+To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+  oper
+    Gender : Type ; 
+  
+    utrum     : Gender ;
+    neutrum   : Gender ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over number names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Number : Type ; 
+  
+    singular : Number ;
+    plural   : Number ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To abstract over case names, we define the following.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Case : Type ;
+  
+    nominative : Case ;
+    genitive   : Case ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    Preposition : Type = Str ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Nouns}
+Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the
+last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN  : (apa,apan,apor,aporna : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular function takes the singular indefinite form and computes the other
+forms and the gender by a heuristic. The heuristic is currently 
+to treat all words ending with \textit{a} like \textit{flicka}, with \textit{e} like \textit{rike},
+and otherwise like \textit{bil}.
+If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test!
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN : Str -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adding the gender manually greatly improves the correction of \texttt{regN}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+In practice the worst case is often just: give singular and plural indefinite.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2N : (nyckel,nycklar : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+This heuristic takes just the plural definite form and infers the others.
+It does not work if there are changes in the stem.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk1N : (bilarna : Str) -> N ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns}
+All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns,
+such as \textit{fotboll}. 
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns}
+Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a
+shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to  
+form other prepositions.
+
+Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases}
+In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a
+relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and
+\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN}
+and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this.
+
+\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases}
+Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ;          -- John, John's
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    nounPN : N -> PN ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular
+genitive, you can use the worst-case function.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; 
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adjectives}
+Adjectives may need as many as seven forms. 
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA : (liten, litet, lilla, sma, mindre, minst, minsta : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending
+with \textit{ig}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regA : Str -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Just the comparison forms can be irregular.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregA : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk3A : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ;
+    mk2A : (bred,brett        : Str) -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Comparison forms may be compound (\textit{mera svensk} - \textit{mest svensk}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    compoundA : A -> A ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives}
+Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Adverbs}
+Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
+after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
+    mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Prepositions}
+A preposition is just a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs}
+The worst case needs five forms.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV : (supa,super,sup,söp,supit,supen : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The 'regular verb' function is inspired by Lexin. It uses the
+present tense indicative form. The value is the first conjugation if the
+argument ends with \textit{ar} (\textit{tala} - \textit{talar} - \textit{talade} - \textit{talat}),
+the second with \textit{er} (\textit{leka} - \textit{leker} - \textit{lekte} - \textit{lekt}, with the
+variations like \textit{gräva}, \textit{vända}, \textit{tyda}, \textit{hyra}), and 
+the third in other cases (\textit{bo} - \textit{bor} - \textit{bodde} - \textit{bott}).
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    regV : (talar : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum.
+It is not really more powerful than the new implementation of
+\texttt{regV} based on the indicative form.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mk2V : (leka,lekte : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregularSwe}.
+In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    irregV : (dricka, drack, druckit : Str) -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.}
+The particle, such as in \textit{passa på}, is given as a string.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    partV  : V -> Str -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs.}
+Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as
+reflexive e.g. \textit{ångra sig}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    depV  : V -> V ;
+    reflV : V -> V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs}
+Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
+(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV2  : V -> Preposition -> V2 ;
+  
+    dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs}
+Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
+the first one or both can be absent.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV3     : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- tala med om
+    dirV3    : V -> Preposition -> V3 ;                -- ge _ till
+    dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;                               -- ge _ _
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns}
+Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
+questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    mkV0  : V -> V0 ;
+    mkVS  : V -> VS ;
+    mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ;
+    mkVV  : V -> VV ;
+    mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ;
+    mkVA  : V -> VA ;
+    mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ;
+    mkVQ  : V -> VQ ;
+    mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ;
+  
+    mkAS  : A -> AS ;
+    mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ;
+    mkAV  : A -> AV ;
+    mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated
+just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given
+as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}.
+\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}.
+
+\begin{verbatim}
+    V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ;
+    AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
+\end{verbatim}
+
+\end{document}