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| author | aarne <aarne@cs.chalmers.se> | 2006-06-15 16:24:09 +0000 |
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| committer | aarne <aarne@cs.chalmers.se> | 2006-06-15 16:24:09 +0000 |
| commit | a25c73cb1ae11c5a249ccd1466bf91bc2965f145 (patch) | |
| tree | 1ece72d0c7832a2547c8311ad7c044cca9cef6f8 /doc/final-resource.tex | |
| parent | afac97b82181e2db14226d854761e53c66d98094 (diff) | |
adjustments in Paradigms ; lang-specific modules for all except Rus, Ara
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| -rw-r--r-- | doc/final-resource.tex | 5293 |
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diff --git a/doc/final-resource.tex b/doc/final-resource.tex deleted file mode 100644 index bf7908195..000000000 --- a/doc/final-resource.tex +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5293 +0,0 @@ -\documentclass[11pt,a4paper]{article} -\usepackage{amsfonts,graphicx} -\usepackage{isolatin1} -\usepackage[pdfstartview=FitH,urlcolor=blue,colorlinks=true,bookmarks=true]{hyperref} -%%\usepackage[utf8x]{inputenc} -\pagestyle{plain} % do page numbering ('empty' turns off) -\frenchspacing % no aditional spaces after periods -\setlength{\parskip}{8pt}\parindent=0pt % no paragraph indentation - -\newcommand{\commOut}[1]{} -\newcommand{\subsubsubsection}[1]{\textbf{#1}.} - -\title{The GF Resource Grammar Library} -\author{Author: Aarne Ranta} -\begin{document} -\date{Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006} -\maketitle - -\tableofcontents - -\clearpage - - -This document is about the -GF Resource Grammar Library. It presuppose knowledge of GF and its -module system, knowledge that can be acquired e.g. from the GF -tutorial. We start with an introduction to the library, and proceed to -details with the aim of covering all that one needs to know -in order to use the library. -How to write one's own resource grammar (i.e. to implement the API for -a new language), is covered by a separate Resource-HOWTO document. - -\subsection*{Motivation} -The GF Resource Grammar Library contains grammar rules for -10 languages (some more are under construction). Its purpose -is to make these rules available for application programmers, -who can thereby concentrate on the semantic and stylistic -aspects of their grammars, without having to think about -grammaticality. The targeted level of application grammarians -is that of a skilled programmer with -a practical knowledge of the target languages, but without -theoretical knowledge about their grammars. -Such a combination of -skills is typical of programmers who want to localize -software to new languages. - -The current resource languages are - -\begin{itemize} -\item \texttt{Dan}ish -\item \texttt{Eng}lish -\item \texttt{Fin}nish -\item \texttt{Fre}nch -\item \texttt{Ger}man -\item \texttt{Ita}lian -\item \texttt{Nor}wegian -\item \texttt{Rus}sian -\item \texttt{Spa}nish -\item \texttt{Swe}dish -\end{itemize} - -The first three letters (\texttt{Dan} etc) are used in grammar module names. - -To give an example application, consider -music playing devices. In the application, -we may have a semantical category \texttt{Kind}, examples -of \texttt{Kind}s being \texttt{Song} and \texttt{Artist}. In German, for instance, \texttt{Song} -is linearized into the noun "Lied", but knowing this is not -enough to make the application work, because the noun must be -produced in both singular and plural, and in four different -cases. By using the resource grammar library, it is enough to -write - -\begin{verbatim} - lin Song = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter -\end{verbatim} -and the eight forms are correctly generated. The resource grammar -library contains a complete set of inflectional paradigms (such as -\texttt{regN2} here), enabling the definition of any lexical items. - -The resource grammar library is not only about inflectional paradigms - it -also has syntax rules. The music player application -might also want to modify songs with properties, such as "American", -"old", "good". The German grammar for adjectival modifications is -particularly complex, because adjectives have to agree in gender, -number, and case, and also depend on what determiner is used -("ein Amerikanisches Lied" vs. "das Amerikanische Lied"). All this -variation is taken care of by the resource grammar function - -\begin{verbatim} - fun AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN -\end{verbatim} -The resource grammar implementation of the rule adding properties -to kinds is - -\begin{verbatim} - lin PropKind kind prop = AdjCN prop kind -\end{verbatim} -given that - -\begin{verbatim} - lincat Prop = AP - lincat Kind = CN -\end{verbatim} -The resource library API is devided into language-specific -and language-independet parts. To put it roughly, - -\begin{itemize} -\item the lexicon API is language-specific -\item the syntax API is language-independent -\end{itemize} - -Thus, to render the above example in French instead of German, we need to -pick a different linearization of \texttt{Song}, - -\begin{verbatim} - lin Song = regGenN "chanson" feminine -\end{verbatim} -But to linearize \texttt{PropKind}, we can use the very same rule as in German. -The resource function \texttt{AdjCN} has different implementations in the two -languages (e.g. a different word order in French), -but the application programmer need not care about the difference. - -\subsubsection*{A complete example} -To summarize the example, and also give a template for a programmer to work on, -here is the complete implementation of a small system with songs and properties. -The abstract syntax defines a "domain ontology": - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Music = { - cat - Kind, - Property ; - fun - PropKind : Kind -> Property -> Kind ; - Song : Kind ; - American : Property ; - } -\end{verbatim} -The concrete syntax is defined by a functor (parametrize module), -independently of language, by opening -two interfaces: the resource \texttt{Grammar} and an application lexicon. - -\begin{verbatim} - incomplete concrete MusicI of Music = open Grammar, MusicLex in { - lincat - Kind = CN ; - Property = AP ; - lin - PropKind k p = AdjCN p k ; - Song = UseN song_N ; - American = PositA american_A ; - } -\end{verbatim} -The application lexicon \texttt{MusicLex} has an abstract syntax that extends -the resource category system \texttt{Cat}. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract MusicLex = Cat ** { - fun - song_N : N ; - american_A : A ; - } -\end{verbatim} -Each language has its own concrete syntax, which opens the -inflectional paradigms module for that language: - -\begin{verbatim} - concrete MusicLexGer of MusicLex = CatGer ** open ParadigmsGer in { - lin - song_N = reg2N "Lied" "Lieder" neuter ; - american_A = regA "Amerikanisch" ; - } - - concrete MusicLexFre of MusicLex = CatFre ** open ParadigmsFre in { - lin - song_N = regGenN "chanson" feminine ; - american_A = regA "am駻icain" ; - } -\end{verbatim} -The top-level \texttt{Music} grammars are obtained by -instantiating the two interfaces of \texttt{MusicI}: - -\begin{verbatim} - concrete MusicGer of Music = MusicI with - (Grammar = GrammarGer), - (MusicLex = MusicLexGer) ; - - concrete MusicFre of Music = MusicI with - (Grammar = GrammarFre), - (MusicLex = MusicLexFre) ; -\end{verbatim} -Both of these files can use the same \texttt{path}, defined as - -\begin{verbatim} - --# -path=.:present:prelude -\end{verbatim} -The \texttt{present} category contains the compiled resources, restricted to -present tense; \texttt{alltenses} has the full resources. - -To localize the music player system to a new language, -all that is needed is two modules, -one implementing \texttt{MusicLex} and the other -instantiating \texttt{Music}. The latter is -completely trivial, whereas the former one involves the choice of correct -vocabulary and inflectional paradigms. For instance, Finnish is added as follows: - -\begin{verbatim} - concrete MusicLexFin of MusicLex = CatFin ** open ParadigmsFin in { - lin - song_N = regN "kappale" ; - american_A = regA "amerikkalainen" ; - } - - concrete MusicFin of Music = MusicI with - (Grammar = GrammarFin), - (MusicLex = MusicLexFin) ; -\end{verbatim} -More work is of course needed if the language-independent linearizations in -MusicI are not satisfactory for some language. The resource grammar guarantees -that the linearizations are possible in all languages, in the sense of grammatical, -but they might of course be inadequate for stylistic reasons. Assume, -for the sake of argument, that adjectival modification does not sound good in -English, but that a relative clause would be preferrable. One can then start as -before, - -\begin{verbatim} - concrete MusicLexEng of MusicLex = CatEng ** open ParadigmsEng in { - lin - song_N = regN "song" ; - american_A = regA "American" ; - } - - concrete MusicEng0 of Music = MusicI with - (Grammar = GrammarEng), - (MusicLex = MusicLexEng) ; -\end{verbatim} -The module \texttt{MusicEng0} would not be used on the top level, however, but -another module would be built on top of it, with a restricted import from -\texttt{MusicEng0}. \texttt{MusicEng} inherits everything from \texttt{MusicEng0} -except \texttt{PropKind}, and -gives its own definition of this function: - -\begin{verbatim} - concrete MusicEng of Music = MusicEng0 - [PropKind] ** open GrammarEng in { - lin - PropKind k p = - RelCN k (UseRCl TPres ASimul PPos (RelVP IdRP (UseComp (CompAP p)))) ; - } -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsection*{Parsing with resource grammars?} -The intended use of the resource grammar is as a library for writing -application grammars. It is not designed for parsing e.g. newspaper text. There -are several reasons why this is not practical: - -\begin{itemize} -\item Efficiency: the resource grammar uses complex data structures, in -particular, discontinuous constituents, which make parsing slow and the -parser size huge. -\item Completeness: the resource grammar does not necessarily cover all rules -of the language - only enough many to be able to express everything -in one way or another. -\item Lexicon: the resource grammar has a very small lexicon, only meant for test -purposes. -\item Semantics: the resource grammar has very little semantic control, and may -accept strange input or deliver strange interpretations. -\item Ambiguity: parsing in the resource grammar may return lots of results many -of which are implausible. -\end{itemize} - -All of these problems should be solved in application grammars. -The task of resource grammars is just to take care of low-level linguistic -details such as inflection, agreement, and word order. - -It is for the same reasons that resource grammars are not adequate for translation. -That the syntax API is implemented for different languages of course makes -it possible to translate via it - but there is no guarantee of translation -equivalence. Of course, the use of functor implementations such as \texttt{MusicI} -above only extends to those cases where the syntax API does give translation -equivalence - but this must be seen as a limiting case, and bigger applications -will often use only restricted inheritance of \texttt{MusicI}. - -\subsection*{To find rules in the resource grammar library} -\subsubsection*{Inflection paradigms} -Inflection paradigms are defined separately for each language \textit{L} -in the module \texttt{Paradigms}\textit{L}. To test them, the command -\texttt{cc} (= \texttt{compute\_concrete}) -can be used: - -\begin{verbatim} - > i -retain german/ParadigmsGer.gf - - > cc regN "Schlange" - { - s : Number => Case => Str = table Number { - Sg => table Case { - Nom => "Schlange" ; - Acc => "Schlange" ; - Dat => "Schlange" ; - Gen => "Schlange" - } ; - Pl => table Case { - Nom => "Schlangen" ; - Acc => "Schlangen" ; - Dat => "Schlangen" ; - Gen => "Schlangen" - } - } ; - g : Gender = Fem - } -\end{verbatim} -For the sake of convenience, every language implements these four paradigms: - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - regN : Str -> N ; -- regular nouns - regA : Str -> A : -- regular adjectives - regV : Str -> V ; -- regular verbs - dirV : V -> V2 ; -- direct transitive verbs -\end{verbatim} -It is often possible to initialize a lexicon by just using these functions, -and later revise it by using the more involved paradigms. For instance, in -German we cannot use \texttt{regN "Lied"} for \texttt{Song}, because the result would be a -Masculine noun with the plural form \texttt{"Liede"}. -The individual \texttt{Paradigms} modules -tell what cases are covered by the regular heuristics. - -As a limiting case, one could even initialize the lexicon for a new language -by copying the English (or some other already existing) lexicon. This would -produce language with correct grammar but with content words directly borrowed from -English - maybe not so strange in certain technical domains. - -\subsubsection*{Syntax rules} -Syntax rules should be looked for in the abstract modules defining the -API. There are around 10 such modules, each defining constructors for -a group of one or more related categories. For instance, the module -\texttt{Noun} defines how to construct common nouns, noun phrases, and determiners. -Thus the proper place to find out how nouns are modified with adjectives -is \texttt{Noun}, because the result of the construction is again a common noun. - -Browsing the libraries is helped by the gfdoc-generated HTML pages, -whose LaTeX versions are included in the present document. -However, this is still not easy, and the most efficient way is -probably to use the parser. -Even though parsing is not an intended end-user application -of resource grammars, it is a useful technique for application grammarians -to browse the library. To find out which resource function implements -a particular structure, one can just parse a string that exemplifies this -structure. For instance, to find out how sentences are built using -transitive verbs, write - -\begin{verbatim} - > i english/LangEng.gf - - > p -cat=Cl -fcfg "she loves him" - - PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) -\end{verbatim} -Parsing with the English resource grammar has an acceptable speed, but -with most languages it takes just too much resources even to build the -parser. However, examples parsed in one language can always be linearized into -other languages: - -\begin{verbatim} - > i italian/LangIta.gf - - > l PredVP (UsePron she_Pron) (ComplV2 love_V2 (UsePron he_Pron)) - - lo ama -\end{verbatim} -Therefore, one can use the English parser to write an Italian grammar, and also -to write a language-independent (incomplete) grammar. One can also parse strings -that are bizarre in English but the intended way of expression in another language. -For instance, the phrase for "I am hungry" in Italian is literally "I have hunger". -This can be built by parsing "I have beer" in LanEng and then writing - -\begin{verbatim} - lin IamHungry = - let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine - in - PredVP (UsePron i_Pron) (ComplV2 have_V2 - (DetCN (DetSg MassDet NoOrd) (UseN beer_N))) ; -\end{verbatim} -which uses ParadigmsIta.regGenN. - -\subsubsection*{Example-based grammar writing} -The technique of parsing with the resource grammar can be used in GF source files, -endowed with the suffix \texttt{.gfe} ("GF examples"). The suffix tells GF to preprocess -the file by replacing all expressions of the form - -\begin{verbatim} - in Module.Cat "example string" -\end{verbatim} -by the syntax trees obtained by parsing "example string" in \texttt{Cat} in \texttt{Module}. -For instance, - -\begin{verbatim} - lin IamHungry = - let beer_N = regGenN "fame" feminine - in - (in LangEng.Cl "I have beer") ; -\end{verbatim} -will result in the rule displayed in the previous section. The normal binding rules -of functional programming (and GF) guarantee that local bindings of identifiers -take precedence over constants of the same forms. Thus it is also possible to -linearize functions taking arguments in this way: - -\begin{verbatim} - lin - PropKind car_N old_A = in LangEng.CN "old car" ; -\end{verbatim} -However, the technique of example-based grammar writing has some limitations: - -\begin{itemize} -\item Ambiguity. If a string has several parses, the first one is returned, and -it may not be the intended one. The other parses are shown in a comment, from -where they must/can be picked manually. -\item Lexicality. The arguments of a function must be atomic identifiers, and are thus -not available for categories that have no lexical items. -For instance, the \texttt{PropKind} rule above gives the result -\begin{verbatim} - lin - PropKind car_N old_A = AdjCN (UseN car_N) (PositA old_A) ; -\end{verbatim} -However, it is possible to write a special lexicon that gives atomic rules for -all those categories that can be used as arguments, for instance, -\begin{verbatim} - fun - cat_CN : CN ; - old_AP : AP ; -\end{verbatim} -and then use this lexicon instead of the standard one included in \texttt{Lang}. -\end{itemize} - -\subsubsection*{Special-purpose APIs} -To give an analogy with the well-known type setting software, GF can be compared -with TeX and the resource grammar library with LaTeX. -Just like TeX frees the author -from thinking about low-level problems of page layout, so GF frees the grammarian -from writing parsing and generation algorithms. But quite a lot of knowledge of -\textit{how} to write grammars is still needed, and the resource grammar library helps -GF grammarians in a way similar to how the LaTeX macro package helps TeX authors. - -But even LaTeX is often too detailed and low-level, and users are encouraged to -develop their own macro packages. The same applies to GF resource grammars: -the application grammarian might not need all the choises that the resource -provides, but would prefer less writing and higher-level programming. -To this end, application grammarians may want to write their own views on the -resource grammar. An example of this is already provided, in -\texttt{mathematical/Predication}. -Instead of the \texttt{NP-VP} structure, it permits clause construction directly from -verbs and adjectives and their arguments: - -\begin{verbatim} - predV : V -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x converges" - predV2 : V2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y" - predV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x intersects y at z" - predVColl : V -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x and y intersect" - predA : A -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x is even" - predA2 : A2 -> NP -> NP -> Cl ; -- "x is divisible by y" -\end{verbatim} -The implementation of this module is the functor \texttt{PredicationI}: - -\begin{verbatim} - predV v x = PredVP x (UseV v) ; - predV2 v x y = PredVP x (ComplV2 v y) ; - predV3 v x y z = PredVP x (ComplV3 v y z) ; - predVColl v x y = PredVP (ConjNP and_Conj (BaseNP x y)) (UseV v) ; - predA a x = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (PositA a))) ; - predA2 a x y = PredVP x (UseComp (CompAP (ComplA2 a y))) ; -\end{verbatim} -Of course, \texttt{Predication} can be opened together with \texttt{Grammar}, but using -the resulting grammar for parsing can be frustrating, since having both -ways of building clauses simultaneously available will produce spurious -ambiguities. But using just \texttt{Predication} without \texttt{Verb} -for parsing is a good idea, -since parsing is more efficient without rules producing verb phrases. - -The use of special-purpose APIs is to some extent just an alternative -to grammar writing by parsing, and its importance may decrease as parsing -with resource grammars becomes more practical. - -\subsection*{Overview of syntactic structures} -\subsubsection*{Texts. phrases, and utterances} -The outermost linguistic structure is \texttt{Text}. \texttt{Text}s are composed -from Phrases (\texttt{Phr}) followed by punctuation marks - either of ".", "?" or -"!" (with their proper variants in Spanish and Arabic). Here is an -example of a \texttt{Text} string. - -\begin{verbatim} - John walks. Why? He doesn't want to sleep! -\end{verbatim} -Phrases are mostly built from Utterances (\texttt{Utt}), which in turn are -declarative sentences, questions, or imperatives - but there -are also "one-word utterances" consisting of noun phrases -or other subsentential phrases. Some Phrases are atomic, -for instance "yes" and "no". Here are some examples of Phrases. - -\begin{verbatim} - yes - come on, John - but John walks - give me the stick please - don't you know that he is sleeping - a glass of wine - a glass of wine please -\end{verbatim} -There is no connection between the punctuation marks and the -types of utterances. This reflects the fact that the punctuation -mark in a real text is selected as a function of the speech act -rather than the grammatical form of an utterance. The following -text is thus well-formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - John walks. John walks? John walks! -\end{verbatim} -What is the difference between Phrase and Utterance? Just technical: -a Phrase is an Utterance with an optional leading conjunction ("but") -and an optional tailing vocative ("John", "please"). - -\subsubsection*{Sentences and clauses} -The richest of the categories below Utterance is \texttt{S}, Sentence. A Sentence -is formed from a Clause (\texttt{Cl}), by fixing its Tense, Anteriority, and Polarity. -The difference between Sentence and Clause is thus also rather technical. -For example, each of the following strings has a distinct syntax tree -in the category Sentence: - -\begin{verbatim} - John walks - John doesn't walk - John walked - John didn't walk - John has walked - John hasn't walked - John will walk - John won't walk - ... -\end{verbatim} -whereas in the category Clause all of them are just different forms of -the same tree. - -The following syntax tree of the Text "John walks." gives an overview -of the structural levels. - -\begin{verbatim} -Node Constructor Value type Other constructors ------------------------------------------------------------ - 1. TFullStop Text TQuestMark - 2. (PhrUtt Phr - 3. NoPConj PConj but_PConj - 4. (UttS Utt UttQS - 5. (UseCl S UseQCl - 6. TPres Tense TPast - 7. ASimul Anter AAnter - 8. PPos Pol PNeg - 9. (PredVP Cl -10. (UsePN NP UsePron, DetCN -11. john_PN) PN mary_PN -12. (UseV VP ComplV2, ComplV3 -13. walk_V)))) V sleep_V -14. NoVoc) Voc please_Voc -15. TEmpty Text -\end{verbatim} -Here are some examples of the results of changing constructors. - -\begin{verbatim} - 1. TFullStop -> TQuestMark John walks? - 3. NoPConj -> but_PConj But John walks. - 6. TPres -> TPast John walked. - 7. ASimul -> AAnter John has walked. - 8. PPos -> PNeg John doesn't walk. -11. john_PN -> mary_PN Mary walks. -13. walk_V -> sleep_V John sleeps. -14. NoVoc -> please_Voc John sleeps please. -\end{verbatim} -All constructors cannot of course be changed so freely, because the -resulting tree would not remain well-typed. Here are some changes involving -many constructors: - -\begin{verbatim} - 4- 5. UttS (UseCl ...) -> - UttQS (UseQCl (... QuestCl ...)) Does John walk? -10-11. UsePN john_PN -> - UsePron we_Pron We walk. -12-13. UseV walk_V -> - ComplV2 love_V2 this_NP John loves this. -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsection*{Parts of sentences} -The linguistic phenomena mostly discussed in both traditional grammars and modern -syntax belong to the level of Clauses, that is, lines 9-13, and occasionally -to Sentences, lines 5-13. At this level, the major categories are -\texttt{NP} (Noun Phrase) and \texttt{VP} (Verb Phrase). A Clause typically -consists of just an \texttt{NP} and a \texttt{VP}. -The internal structure of both \texttt{NP} and \texttt{VP} can be very complex, -and these categories are mutually recursive: not only can a \texttt{VP} -contain an \texttt{NP}, - -\begin{verbatim} - [VP loves [NP Mary]] -\end{verbatim} -but also an \texttt{NP} can contain a \texttt{VP} - -\begin{verbatim} - [NP every man [RS who [VP walks]]] -\end{verbatim} -(a labelled bracketing like this is of course just a rough approximation of -a GF syntax tree, but still a useful device of exposition). - -Most of the resource modules thus define functions that are used inside -NPs and VPs. Here is a brief overview: - -\textbf{Noun}. How to construct NPs. The main three mechanisms -for constructing NPs are - -\begin{itemize} -\item from proper names: "John" -\item from pronouns: "we" -\item from common nouns by determiners: "this man" -\end{itemize} - -The \texttt{Noun} module also defines the construction of common nouns. -The most frequent ways are - -\begin{itemize} -\item lexical noun items: "man" -\item adjectival modification: "old man" -\item relative clause modification: "man who sleeps" -\item application of relational nouns: "successor of the number" -\end{itemize} - -\textbf{Verb}. -How to construct VPs. The main mechanism is verbs with their arguments, -for instance, - -\begin{itemize} -\item one-place verbs: "walks" -\item two-place verbs: "loves Mary" -\item three-place verbs: "gives her a kiss" -\item sentence-complement verbs: "says that it is cold" -\item VP-complement verbs: "wants to give her a kiss" -\end{itemize} - -A special verb is the copula, "be" in English but not even realized -by a verb in all languages. -A copula can take different kinds of complement: - -\begin{itemize} -\item an adjectival phrase: "(John is) old" -\item an adverb: "(John is) here" -\item a noun phrase: "(John is) a man" -\end{itemize} - -\textbf{Adjective}. -How to constuct \texttt{AP}s. The main ways are - -\begin{itemize} -\item positive forms of adjectives: "old" -\item comparative forms with object of comparison: "older than John" -\end{itemize} - -\textbf{Adverb}. -How to construct \texttt{Adv}s. The main ways are - -\begin{itemize} -\item from adjectives: "slowly" -\item as prepositional phrases: "in the car" -\end{itemize} - -\subsubsection*{Modules and their names} -The resource modules are named after the kind of -phrases that are constructed in them, -and they can be roughly classified by the "level" or "size" of expressions that are -formed in them: - -\begin{itemize} -\item Larger than sentence: \texttt{Text}, \texttt{Phrase} -\item Same level as sentence: \texttt{Sentence}, \texttt{Question}, \texttt{Relative} -\item Parts of sentence: \texttt{Adjective}, \texttt{Adverb}, \texttt{Noun}, \texttt{Verb} -\item Cross-cut (coordination): \texttt{Conjunction} -\end{itemize} - -Because of mutual recursion such as in embedded sentences, this classification is -not a complete order. However, no mutual dependence is needed between the -modules in a formal sense - they can all be compiled separately. This is due -to the module \texttt{Cat}, which defines the type system common to the other modules. -For instance, the types \texttt{NP} and \texttt{VP} are defined in \texttt{Cat}, -and the module \texttt{Verb} only -needs to know what is given in \texttt{Cat}, not what is given in \texttt{Noun}. To implement -a rule such as - -\begin{verbatim} - Verb.ComplV2 : V2 -> NP -> VP -\end{verbatim} -it is enough to know the linearization type of \texttt{NP} -(as well as those of \texttt{V2} and \texttt{VP}, all -given in \texttt{Cat}). It is not necessary to know what -ways there are to build \texttt{NP}s (given in \texttt{Noun}), since all these ways must -conform to the linearization type defined in \texttt{Cat}. Thus the format of -category-specific modules is as follows: - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Adjective = Cat ** {...} - abstract Noun = Cat ** {...} - abstract Verb = Cat ** {...} -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsection*{Top-level grammar and lexicon} -The module \texttt{Grammar} collects all the category-specific modules into -a complete grammar: - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Grammar = - Adjective, Noun, Verb, ..., Structural, Idiom -\end{verbatim} -The module \texttt{Structural} is a lexicon of structural words (function words), -such as determiners. - -The module \texttt{Idiom} is a collection of idiomatic structures whose -implementation is very language-dependent. An example is existential -structures ("there is", "es gibt", "il y a", etc). - -The module \texttt{Lang} combines \texttt{Grammar} with a \texttt{Lexicon} of -ca. 350 content words: - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Lang = Grammar, Lexicon -\end{verbatim} -Using \texttt{Lang} instead of \texttt{Grammar} as a library may give -for free some words needed in an application. But its main purpose is to -help testing the resource library. It does not seem possible to maintain -a general-purpose multilingual lexicon, and this is the form that the module -\texttt{Lexicon} has. - -\subsubsection*{Language-specific syntactic structures} -The API collected in \texttt{Grammar} has been designed to be implementable for -all languages in the resource package. It does contain some rules that -are strange or superfluous in some languages; for instance, the distinction -between definite and indefinite articles does not apply to Finnish and Russian. -But such rules are still easy to implement: they only create some superfluous -ambiguity in the languages in question. - -But the library makes no claim that all languages should have exactly the same -abstract syntax. The common API is therefore extended by language-dependent -rules. The top level of each languages looks as follows (with English as example): - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract English = Grammar, ExtraEngAbs, DictEngAbs -\end{verbatim} -where \texttt{ExtraEngAbs} is a collection of syntactic structures specific to English, -and \texttt{DictEngAbs} is an English dictionary -(at the moment, it consists of \texttt{IrregEngAbs}, -the irregular verbs of English). Each of these language-specific grammars has -the potential to grow into a full-scale grammar of the language. These grammar -can also be used as libraries, but the possibility of using functors is lost. - -To give a better overview of language-specific structures, -modules like \texttt{ExtraEngAbs} -are built from a language-independent module \texttt{ExtraAbs} -by restricted inheritance: - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract ExtraEngAbs = Extra [f,g,...] -\end{verbatim} -Thus any category and function in \texttt{Extra} may be shared by a subset of all -languages. One can see this set-up as a matrix, which tells -what \texttt{Extra} structures -are implemented in what languages. For the common API in \texttt{Grammar}, the matrix -is filled with 1's (everything is implemented in every language). - -Language-specific extensions and the use of restricted -inheritance is a recent addition to the resource grammar library, and -has only been exploited in a very small scale so far. - - -\section{API Documentation} -\subsection{Top-level modules} - -\subsubsection{Grammar} -This grammar a collection of the different grammar modules, -To test the resource, import \htmladdnormallink{Lang}{Lang.html}, which also contains -a lexicon. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Grammar = - Noun, - Verb, - Adjective, - Adverb, - Numeral, - Sentence, - Question, - Relative, - Conjunction, - Phrase, - Text, - Structural, - Idiom - ** {} ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Grammar with lexicon} -This grammar is just a collection of the different modules, -and the one that can be imported when one wants to test the -grammar. A module without a lexicon is \htmladdnormallink{Grammar}{Grammar.html}, -which may be more suitable to open in applications. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Lang = - Grammar, - Lexicon - ** {} ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsection{Type system} -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{The category system} -The category system is central to the library in the sense -that the other modules (\texttt{Adjective}, \texttt{Adverb}, \texttt{Noun}, \texttt{Verb} etc) -communicate through it. This means that a e.g. a function using -\texttt{NP}s in \texttt{Verb} need not know how \texttt{NP}s are constructed in \texttt{Noun}: -it is enough that both \texttt{Verb} and \texttt{Noun} use the same type \texttt{NP}, -which is given here in \texttt{Cat}. - -Some categories are inherited from \htmladdnormallink{Common}{Common.html}. -The reason they are defined there is that they have the same -implementation in all languages in the resource (typically, -just a string). These categories are -\texttt{AdA, AdN, AdV, Adv, Ant, CAdv, IAdv, PConj, Phr}, -\texttt{Pol, SC, Tense, Text, Utt, Voc}. - -Moreover, the list categories \texttt{ListAdv, ListAP, ListNP, ListS} -are defined on \texttt{Conjunction} and only used locally there. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Cat = Common ** { - - cat -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Sentences and clauses} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}, and also in -\htmladdnormallink{Idiom}{Idiom.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - S ; -- declarative sentence e.g. "she lived here" - QS ; -- question e.g. "where did she live" - RS ; -- relative e.g. "in which she lived" - Cl ; -- declarative clause, with all tenses e.g. "she looks at this" - Slash ; -- clause missing NP (S/NP in GPSG) e.g. "she looks at" - Imp ; -- imperative e.g. "look at this" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Questions and interrogatives} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Question}{Question.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - QCl ; -- question clause, with all tenses e.g. "why does she walk" - IP ; -- interrogative pronoun e.g. "who" - IComp ; -- interrogative complement of copula e.g. "where" - IDet ; -- interrogative determiner e.g. "which" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relative clauses and pronouns} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Relative}{Relative.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - RCl ; -- relative clause, with all tenses e.g. "in which she lives" - RP ; -- relative pronoun e.g. "in which" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verb phrases} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - VP ; -- verb phrase e.g. "is very warm" - Comp ; -- complement of copula, such as AP e.g. "very warm" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectival phrases} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Adjective}{Adjective.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - AP ; -- adjectival phrase e.g. "very warm" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns and noun phrases} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}. -Many atomic noun phrases e.g. \textit{everybody} -are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. -The determiner structure is - -\begin{verbatim} -Predet (QuantSg | QuantPl Num) Ord -\end{verbatim} -as defined in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - CN ; -- common noun (without determiner) e.g. "red house" - NP ; -- noun phrase (subject or object) e.g. "the red house" - Pron ; -- personal pronoun e.g. "she" - Det ; -- determiner phrase e.g. "all the seven" - Predet; -- predeterminer (prefixed Quant) e.g. "all" - QuantSg;-- quantifier ('nucleus' of sing. Det) e.g. "every" - QuantPl;-- quantifier ('nucleus' of plur. Det) e.g. "many" - Quant ; -- quantifier with both sg and pl e.g. "this/these" - Num ; -- cardinal number (used with QuantPl) e.g. "seven" - Ord ; -- ordinal number (used in Det) e.g. "seventh" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Numerals} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Numeral}{Numeral.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - Numeral;-- cardinal or ordinal, e.g. "five/fifth" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Structural words} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - Conj ; -- conjunction, e.g. "and" - DConj ; -- distributed conj. e.g. "both - and" - Subj ; -- subjunction, e.g. "if" - Prep ; -- preposition, or just case e.g. "in" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Words of open classes} -These are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Lexicon}{Lexicon.html} and in -additional lexicon modules. - -\begin{verbatim} - V ; -- one-place verb e.g. "sleep" - V2 ; -- two-place verb e.g. "love" - V3 ; -- three-place verb e.g. "show" - VV ; -- verb-phrase-complement verb e.g. "want" - VS ; -- sentence-complement verb e.g. "claim" - VQ ; -- question-complement verb e.g. "ask" - VA ; -- adjective-complement verb e.g. "look" - V2A ; -- verb with NP and AP complement e.g. "paint" - - A ; -- one-place adjective e.g. "warm" - A2 ; -- two-place adjective e.g. "divisible" - - N ; -- common noun e.g. "house" - N2 ; -- relational noun e.g. "son" - N3 ; -- three-place relational noun e.g. "connection" - PN ; -- proper name e.g. "Paris" - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Infrastructure with common implementations.} -This module defines the categories that uniformly have the linearization -\texttt{\{s : Str\}} in all languages. -Moreover, this module defines the abstract parameters of tense, polarity, and -anteriority, which are used in \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html} to generate different -forms of sentences. Together they give 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 sentence forms. -These tenses are defined for all languages in the library. More tenses -can be defined in the language extensions, e.g. the \textit{passﾃｩ simple} of -Romance languages. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Common = { - - cat -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Top-level units} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Text}{Text.html}: \texttt{Text}. - -\begin{verbatim} - Text ; -- text consisting of several phrases e.g. "He is here. Why?" -\end{verbatim} - -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html}: - -\begin{verbatim} - Phr ; -- phrase in a text e.g. "but be quiet please" - Utt ; -- sentence, question, word... e.g. "be quiet" - Voc ; -- vocative or "please" e.g. "my darling" - PConj ; -- phrase-beginning conj. e.g. "therefore" -\end{verbatim} - -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}: - -\begin{verbatim} - SC ; -- embedded sentence or question e.g. "that it rains" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Adverb}{Adverb.html}. -Many adverbs are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - Adv ; -- verb-phrase-modifying adverb, e.g. "in the house" - AdV ; -- adverb directly attached to verb e.g. "always" - AdA ; -- adjective-modifying adverb, e.g. "very" - AdN ; -- numeral-modifying adverb, e.g. "more than" - IAdv ; -- interrogative adverb e.g. "why" - CAdv ; -- comparative adverb e.g. "more" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Tense, polarity, and anteriority} -\begin{verbatim} - Tense ; -- tense: present, past, future, conditional - Pol ; -- polarity: positive, negative - Ant ; -- anteriority: simultaneous, anterior - - fun - PPos, PNeg : Pol ; -- I sleep/don't sleep - - TPres : Tense ; - ASimul : Ant ; - TPast, TFut, TCond : Tense ; -- I slept/will sleep/would sleep --# notpresent - AAnter : Ant ; -- I have slept --# notpresent - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\subsection{Phrase category modules} -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Adjectives and adjectival phrases} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Adjective = Cat ** { - - fun -\end{verbatim} - -The principal ways of forming an adjectival phrase are -positive, comparative, relational, reflexive-relational, and -elliptic-relational. -(The superlative use is covered in \htmladdnormallink{Noun}{Noun.html}.\texttt{SuperlA}.) - -\begin{verbatim} - PositA : A -> AP ; -- warm - ComparA : A -> NP -> AP ; -- warmer than Spain - ComplA2 : A2 -> NP -> AP ; -- divisible by 2 - ReflA2 : A2 -> AP ; -- divisible by itself - UseA2 : A2 -> A ; -- divisible -\end{verbatim} - -Sentence and question complements defined for all adjectival -phrases, although the semantics is only clear for some adjective. - -\begin{verbatim} - SentAP : AP -> SC -> AP ; -- great that she won, uncertain if she did -\end{verbatim} - -An adjectival phrase can be modified by an \textbf{adadjective}, such as \textit{very}. - -\begin{verbatim} - AdAP : AdA -> AP -> AP ; -- very uncertain -\end{verbatim} - -The formation of adverbs from adjective (e.g. \textit{quickly}) is covered -by \htmladdnormallink{Adverb}{Adverb.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Adverbs and adverbial phrases} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Adverb = Cat ** { - - fun -\end{verbatim} - -The two main ways of forming adverbs are from adjectives and by -prepositions from noun phrases. - -\begin{verbatim} - PositAdvAdj : A -> Adv ; -- quickly - PrepNP : Prep -> NP -> Adv ; -- in the house -\end{verbatim} - -Comparative adverbs have a noun phrase or a sentence as object of -comparison. - -\begin{verbatim} - ComparAdvAdj : CAdv -> A -> NP -> Adv ; -- more quickly than John - ComparAdvAdjS : CAdv -> A -> S -> Adv ; -- more quickly than he runs -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs can be modified by 'adadjectives', just like adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - AdAdv : AdA -> Adv -> Adv ; -- very quickly -\end{verbatim} - -Subordinate clauses can function as adverbs. - -\begin{verbatim} - SubjS : Subj -> S -> Adv ; -- when he arrives - AdvSC : SC -> Adv ; -- that he arrives ---- REMOVE? -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison adverbs also work as numeral adverbs. - -\begin{verbatim} - AdnCAdv : CAdv -> AdN ; -- more (than five) - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Coordination} -Coordination is defined for many different categories; here is -a sample. The rules apply to \textbf{lists} of two or more elements, -and define two general patterns: - -\begin{itemize} -\item ordinary conjunction: X,...X and X -\item distributed conjunction: both X,...,X and X -\end{itemize} - -\textbf{Note}. This module uses right-recursive lists. If backward -compatibility with API 0.9 is needed, use -\htmladdnormallink{SeqConjunction}{SeqConjunction.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Conjunction = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Rules} -\begin{verbatim} - fun - ConjS : Conj -> [S] -> S ; -- "John walks and Mary runs" - ConjAP : Conj -> [AP] -> AP ; -- "even and prime" - ConjNP : Conj -> [NP] -> NP ; -- "John or Mary" - ConjAdv : Conj -> [Adv] -> Adv ; -- "quickly or slowly" - - DConjS : DConj -> [S] -> S ; -- "either John walks or Mary runs" - DConjAP : DConj -> [AP] -> AP ; -- "both even and prime" - DConjNP : DConj -> [NP] -> NP ; -- "either John or Mary" - DConjAdv : DConj -> [Adv] -> Adv; -- "both badly and slowly" -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Categories} -These categories are only used in this module. - -\begin{verbatim} - cat - [S]{2} ; - [Adv]{2} ; - [NP]{2} ; - [AP]{2} ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{List constructors} -The list constructors are derived from the list notation and therefore -not given explicitly. But here are their type signatures: - -\begin{verbatim} - -- BaseC : C -> C -> [C] ; -- for C = S, AP, NP, Adv - -- ConsC : C -> [C] -> [C] ; - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Idiomatic expressions} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Idiom = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -This module defines constructions that are formed in fixed ways, -often different even in closely related languages. - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - ImpersCl : VP -> Cl ; -- it rains - GenericCl : VP -> Cl ; -- one sleeps - - CleftNP : NP -> RS -> Cl ; -- it is you who did it - CleftAdv : Adv -> S -> Cl ; -- it is yesterday she arrived - - ExistNP : NP -> Cl ; -- there is a house - ExistIP : IP -> QCl ; -- which houses are there - - ProgrVP : VP -> VP ; -- be sleeping - - ImpPl1 : VP -> Utt ; -- let's go - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{The construction of nouns, noun phrases, and determiners} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Noun = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Noun phrases} -The three main types of noun phrases are - -\begin{itemize} -\item common nouns with determiners -\item proper names -\item pronouns -\end{itemize} - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - DetCN : Det -> CN -> NP ; -- the man - UsePN : PN -> NP ; -- John - UsePron : Pron -> NP ; -- he -\end{verbatim} - -Pronouns are defined in the module \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. -A noun phrase already formed can be modified by a \texttt{Predet}erminer. - -\begin{verbatim} - PredetNP : Predet -> NP -> NP; -- only the man -\end{verbatim} - -A noun phrase can also be postmodified by the past participle of a -verb or by an adverb. - -\begin{verbatim} - PPartNP : NP -> V2 -> NP ; -- the number squared - AdvNP : NP -> Adv -> NP ; -- Paris at midnight -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Determiners} -The determiner has a fine-grained structure, in which a 'nucleus' -quantifier and two optional parts can be discerned. -The cardinal numeral is only available for plural determiners. -(This is modified from CLE by further dividing their \texttt{Num} into -cardinal and ordinal.) - -\begin{verbatim} - DetSg : QuantSg -> Ord -> Det ; -- this best man - DetPl : QuantPl -> Num -> Ord -> Det ; -- these five best men -\end{verbatim} - -Quantifiers that have both forms can be used in both ways. - -\begin{verbatim} - SgQuant : Quant -> QuantSg ; -- this - PlQuant : Quant -> QuantPl ; -- these -\end{verbatim} - -Pronouns have possessive forms. Genitives of other kinds -of noun phrases are not given here, since they are not possible -in e.g. Romance languages. - -\begin{verbatim} - PossPron : Pron -> Quant ; -- my (house) -\end{verbatim} - -All parts of the determiner can be empty, except \texttt{Quant}, which is -the \textit{kernel} of a determiner. - -\begin{verbatim} - NoNum : Num ; - NoOrd : Ord ; -\end{verbatim} - -\texttt{Num} consists of either digits or numeral words. - -\begin{verbatim} - NumInt : Int -> Num ; -- 51 - NumNumeral : Numeral -> Num ; -- fifty-one -\end{verbatim} - -The construction of numerals is defined in \htmladdnormallink{Numeral}{Numeral.html}. -\texttt{Num} can be modified by certain adverbs. - -\begin{verbatim} - AdNum : AdN -> Num -> Num ; -- almost 51 -\end{verbatim} - -\texttt{Ord} consists of either digits or numeral words. - -\begin{verbatim} - OrdInt : Int -> Ord ; -- 51st - OrdNumeral : Numeral -> Ord ; -- fifty-first -\end{verbatim} - -Superlative forms of adjectives behave syntactically in the same way as -ordinals. - -\begin{verbatim} - OrdSuperl : A -> Ord ; -- largest -\end{verbatim} - -Definite and indefinite constructions are sometimes realized as -neatly distinct words (Spanish \textit{un, unos ; el, los}) but also without -any particular word (Finnish; Swedish definites). - -\begin{verbatim} - DefArt : Quant ; -- the (house), the (houses) - IndefArt : Quant ; -- a (house), (houses) -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns can be used without an article as mass nouns. The resource does -not distinguish mass nouns from other common nouns, which can result -in semantically odd expressions. - -\begin{verbatim} - MassDet : QuantSg ; -- (beer) -\end{verbatim} - -Other determiners are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. - -\subsubsubsection{Common nouns} -Simple nouns can be used as nouns outright. - -\begin{verbatim} - UseN : N -> CN ; -- house -\end{verbatim} - -Relational nouns take one or two arguments. - -\begin{verbatim} - ComplN2 : N2 -> NP -> CN ; -- son of the king - ComplN3 : N3 -> NP -> N2 ; -- flight from Moscow (to Paris) -\end{verbatim} - -Relational nouns can also be used without their arguments. -The semantics is typically derivative of the relational meaning. - -\begin{verbatim} - UseN2 : N2 -> CN ; -- son - UseN3 : N3 -> CN ; -- flight -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns can be modified by adjectives, relative clauses, and adverbs -(the last rule will give rise to many 'PP attachement' ambiguities -when used in connection with verb phrases). - -\begin{verbatim} - AdjCN : AP -> CN -> CN ; -- big house - RelCN : CN -> RS -> CN ; -- house that John owns - AdvCN : CN -> Adv -> CN ; -- house on the hill -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns can also be modified by embedded sentences and questions. -For some nouns this makes little sense, but we leave this for applications -to decide. Sentential complements are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - SentCN : CN -> SC -> CN ; -- fact that John smokes, question if he does -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Apposition} -This is certainly overgenerating. - -\begin{verbatim} - ApposCN : CN -> NP -> CN ; -- number x, numbers x and y - - } ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Numerals} -This grammar defines numerals from 1 to 999999. -The implementations are adapted from the -\htmladdnormallink{numerals library}{http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~aarne/GF/examples/numerals/} -which defines numerals for 88 languages. -The resource grammar implementations add to this inflection (if needed) -and ordinal numbers. -\textbf{Note}. Number 1 as defined -in the category \texttt{Numeral} here should not be used in the formation of -noun phrases, and should therefore be removed. Instead, one should use -\htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}\texttt{.one\_Quant}. This makes the grammar simpler -because we can assume that numbers form plural noun phrases. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Numeral = Cat ** { - - cat - Digit ; -- 2..9 - Sub10 ; -- 1..9 - Sub100 ; -- 1..99 - Sub1000 ; -- 1..999 - Sub1000000 ; -- 1..999999 - - fun - num : Sub1000000 -> Numeral ; - - n2, n3, n4, n5, n6, n7, n8, n9 : Digit ; - - pot01 : Sub10 ; -- 1 - pot0 : Digit -> Sub10 ; -- d * 1 - pot110 : Sub100 ; -- 10 - pot111 : Sub100 ; -- 11 - pot1to19 : Digit -> Sub100 ; -- 10 + d - pot0as1 : Sub10 -> Sub100 ; -- coercion of 1..9 - pot1 : Digit -> Sub100 ; -- d * 10 - pot1plus : Digit -> Sub10 -> Sub100 ; -- d * 10 + n - pot1as2 : Sub100 -> Sub1000 ; -- coercion of 1..99 - pot2 : Sub10 -> Sub1000 ; -- m * 100 - pot2plus : Sub10 -> Sub100 -> Sub1000 ; -- m * 100 + n - pot2as3 : Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- coercion of 1..999 - pot3 : Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- m * 1000 - pot3plus : Sub1000 -> Sub1000 -> Sub1000000 ; -- m * 1000 + n - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Phrases and utterances} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Phrase = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -When a phrase is built from an utterance it can be prefixed -with a phrasal conjunction (such as \textit{but}, \textit{therefore}) -and suffixing with a vocative (typically a noun phrase). - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - PhrUtt : PConj -> Utt -> Voc -> Phr ; -- But go home my friend. -\end{verbatim} - -Utterances are formed from sentences, questions, and imperatives. - -\begin{verbatim} - UttS : S -> Utt ; -- John walks - UttQS : QS -> Utt ; -- is it good - UttImpSg : Pol -> Imp -> Utt; -- (don't) help yourself - UttImpPl : Pol -> Imp -> Utt; -- (don't) help yourselves -\end{verbatim} - -There are also 'one-word utterances'. A typical use of them is -as answers to questions. -\textbf{Note}. This list is incomplete. More categories could be covered. -Moreover, in many languages e.g. noun phrases in different cases -can be used. - -\begin{verbatim} - UttIP : IP -> Utt ; -- who - UttIAdv : IAdv -> Utt ; -- why - UttNP : NP -> Utt ; -- this man - UttAdv : Adv -> Utt ; -- here - UttVP : VP -> Utt ; -- to sleep -\end{verbatim} - -The phrasal conjunction is optional. A sentence conjunction -can also used to prefix an utterance. - -\begin{verbatim} - NoPConj : PConj ; - PConjConj : Conj -> PConj ; -- and -\end{verbatim} - -The vocative is optional. Any noun phrase can be made into vocative, -which may be overgenerating (e.g. \textit{I}). - -\begin{verbatim} - NoVoc : Voc ; - VocNP : NP -> Voc ; -- my friend - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Questions and interrogative pronouns} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Question = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -A question can be formed from a clause ('yes-no question') or -with an interrogative. - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - QuestCl : Cl -> QCl ; -- does John walk - QuestVP : IP -> VP -> QCl ; -- who walks - QuestSlash : IP -> Slash -> QCl ; -- who does John love - QuestIAdv : IAdv -> Cl -> QCl ; -- why does John walk - QuestIComp : IComp -> NP -> QCl ; -- where is John -\end{verbatim} - -Interrogative pronouns can be formed with interrogative -determiners. - -\begin{verbatim} - IDetCN : IDet -> Num -> Ord -> CN -> IP; -- which five best songs - AdvIP : IP -> Adv -> IP ; -- who in Europe - - PrepIP : Prep -> IP -> IAdv ; -- with whom - - CompIAdv : IAdv -> IComp ; -- where -\end{verbatim} - -More \texttt{IP}, \texttt{IDet}, and \texttt{IAdv} are defined in -\htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Relative clauses and pronouns} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Relative = Cat ** { - - fun -\end{verbatim} - -The simplest way to form a relative clause is from a clause by -a pronoun similar to \textit{such that}. - -\begin{verbatim} - RelCl : Cl -> RCl ; -- such that John loves her -\end{verbatim} - -The more proper ways are from a verb phrase (formed in \htmladdnormallink{Verb}{Verb.html}) -or a sentence with a missing noun phrase (formed in \htmladdnormallink{Sentence}{Sentence.html}). - -\begin{verbatim} - RelVP : RP -> VP -> RCl ; -- who loves John - RelSlash : RP -> Slash -> RCl ; -- whom John loves -\end{verbatim} - -Relative pronouns are formed from an 'identity element' by prefixing -or suffixing (depending on language) prepositional phrases. - -\begin{verbatim} - IdRP : RP ; -- which - FunRP : Prep -> NP -> RP -> RP ; -- all the roots of which - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Sentences, clauses, imperatives, and sentential complements} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Sentence = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Clauses} -The \texttt{NP VP} predication rule form a clause whose linearization -gives a table of all tense variants, positive and negative. -Clauses are converted to \texttt{S} (with fixed tense) in \htmladdnormallink{Tensed}{Tensed.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - PredVP : NP -> VP -> Cl ; -- John walks -\end{verbatim} - -Using an embedded sentence as a subject is treated separately. -This can be overgenerating. E.g. \textit{whether you go} as subject -is only meaningful for some verb phrases. - -\begin{verbatim} - PredSCVP : SC -> VP -> Cl ; -- that you go makes me happy -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Clauses missing object noun phrases} -This category is a variant of the 'slash category' \texttt{S/NP} of -GPSG and categorial grammars, which in turn replaces -movement transformations in the formation of questions -and relative clauses. Except \texttt{SlashV2}, the construction -rules can be seen as special cases of function composition, in -the style of CCG. -\textbf{Note} the set is not complete and lacks e.g. verbs with more than 2 places. - -\begin{verbatim} - SlashV2 : NP -> V2 -> Slash ; -- (whom) he sees - SlashVVV2 : NP -> VV -> V2 -> Slash; -- (whom) he wants to see - AdvSlash : Slash -> Adv -> Slash ; -- (whom) he sees tomorrow - SlashPrep : Cl -> Prep -> Slash ; -- (with whom) he walks -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Imperatives} -An imperative is straightforwardly formed from a verb phrase. -It has variation over positive and negative, singular and plural. -To fix these parameters, see \htmladdnormallink{Phrase}{Phrase.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - ImpVP : VP -> Imp ; -- go -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Embedded sentences} -Sentences, questions, and infinitival phrases can be used as -subjects and (adverbial) complements. - -\begin{verbatim} - EmbedS : S -> SC ; -- that you go - EmbedQS : QS -> SC ; -- whether you go - EmbedVP : VP -> SC ; -- to go -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Sentences} -These are the 2 x 4 x 4 = 16 forms generated by different -combinations of tense, polarity, and -anteriority, which are defined in \htmladdnormallink{Tense}{Tense.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - UseCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> Cl -> S ; - UseQCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> QCl -> QS ; - UseRCl : Tense -> Ant -> Pol -> RCl -> RS ; - - } -\end{verbatim} - -Examples for English \texttt{S}/\texttt{Cl}: - -Pres Simul Pos ODir : he sleeps -Pres Simul Neg ODir : he doesn't sleep -Pres Anter Pos ODir : he has slept -Pres Anter Neg ODir : he hasn't slept -Past Simul Pos ODir : he slept -Past Simul Neg ODir : he didn't sleep -Past Anter Pos ODir : he had slept -Past Anter Neg ODir : he hadn't slept -Fut Simul Pos ODir : he will sleep -Fut Simul Neg ODir : he won't sleep -Fut Anter Pos ODir : he will have slept -Fut Anter Neg ODir : he won't have slept -Cond Simul Pos ODir : he would sleep -Cond Simul Neg ODir : he wouldn't sleep -Cond Anter Pos ODir : he would have slept -Cond Anter Neg ODir : he wouldn't have slept -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Structural Words} - -Here we have some words belonging to closed classes and appearing -in all languages we have considered. -Sometimes they are not really meaningful, e.g. \texttt{we\_Pron} in Spanish -should be replaced by masculine and feminine variants. - -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Structural = Cat ** { - - fun -\end{verbatim} - -This is an alphabetical list of structural words - -\begin{verbatim} - above_Prep : Prep ; - after_Prep : Prep ; - all_Predet : Predet ; - almost_AdA : AdA ; - almost_AdN : AdN ; - although_Subj : Subj ; - always_AdV : AdV ; - and_Conj : Conj ; - because_Subj : Subj ; - before_Prep : Prep ; - behind_Prep : Prep ; - between_Prep : Prep ; - both7and_DConj : DConj ; - but_PConj : PConj ; - by8agent_Prep : Prep ; - by8means_Prep : Prep ; - can8know_VV : VV ; - can_VV : VV ; - during_Prep : Prep ; - either7or_DConj : DConj ; - every_Det : Det ; - everybody_NP : NP ; - everything_NP : NP ; - everywhere_Adv : Adv ; - first_Ord : Ord ; - few_Det : Det ; - from_Prep : Prep ; - he_Pron : Pron ; - here_Adv : Adv ; - here7to_Adv : Adv ; - here7from_Adv : Adv ; - how_IAdv : IAdv ; - how8many_IDet : IDet ; - i_Pron : Pron ; - if_Subj : Subj ; - in8front_Prep : Prep ; - in_Prep : Prep ; - it_Pron : Pron ; - less_CAdv : CAdv ; - many_Det : Det ; - more_CAdv : CAdv ; - most_Predet : Predet ; - much_Det : Det ; - must_VV : VV ; - no_Phr : Phr ; - on_Prep : Prep ; - one_Quant : QuantSg ; - only_Predet : Predet ; - or_Conj : Conj ; - otherwise_PConj : PConj ; - part_Prep : Prep ; - please_Voc : Voc ; - possess_Prep : Prep ; - quite_Adv : AdA ; - she_Pron : Pron ; - so_AdA : AdA ; - someSg_Det : Det ; - somePl_Det : Det ; - somebody_NP : NP ; - something_NP : NP ; - somewhere_Adv : Adv ; - that_Quant : Quant ; - that_NP : NP ; - there_Adv : Adv ; - there7to_Adv : Adv ; - there7from_Adv : Adv ; - therefore_PConj : PConj ; - these_NP : NP ; - they_Pron : Pron ; - this_Quant : Quant ; - this_NP : NP ; - those_NP : NP ; - through_Prep : Prep ; - to_Prep : Prep ; - too_AdA : AdA ; - under_Prep : Prep ; - very_AdA : AdA ; - want_VV : VV ; - we_Pron : Pron ; - whatPl_IP : IP ; - whatSg_IP : IP ; - when_IAdv : IAdv ; - when_Subj : Subj ; - where_IAdv : IAdv ; - whichPl_IDet : IDet ; - whichSg_IDet : IDet ; - whoPl_IP : IP ; - whoSg_IP : IP ; - why_IAdv : IAdv ; - with_Prep : Prep ; - without_Prep : Prep ; - yes_Phr : Phr ; - youSg_Pron : Pron ; - youPl_Pron : Pron ; - youPol_Pron : Pron ; - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{Texts} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Text = Common ** { - - fun - TEmpty : Text ; - TFullStop : Phr -> Text -> Text ; - TQuestMark : Phr -> Text -> Text ; - TExclMark : Phr -> Text -> Text ; - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - - -\subsubsection{The construction of verb phrases} -\begin{verbatim} - abstract Verb = Cat ** { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Complementization rules} -Verb phrases are constructed from verbs by providing their -complements. There is one rule for each verb category. - -\begin{verbatim} - fun - UseV : V -> VP ; -- sleep - ComplV2 : V2 -> NP -> VP ; -- use it - ComplV3 : V3 -> NP -> NP -> VP ; -- send a message to her - - ComplVV : VV -> VP -> VP ; -- want to run - ComplVS : VS -> S -> VP ; -- know that she runs - ComplVQ : VQ -> QS -> VP ; -- ask if she runs - - ComplVA : VA -> AP -> VP ; -- look red - ComplV2A : V2A -> NP -> AP -> VP ; -- paint the house red -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other ways of forming verb phrases} -Verb phrases can also be constructed reflexively and from -copula-preceded complements. - -\begin{verbatim} - ReflV2 : V2 -> VP ; -- use itself - UseComp : Comp -> VP ; -- be warm -\end{verbatim} - -Passivization of two-place verbs is another way to use -them. In many languages, the result is a participle that -is used as complement to a copula (\textit{is used}), but other -auxiliary verbs are possible (Ger. \textit{wird angewendet}, It. -\textit{viene usato}), as well as special verb forms (Fin. \textit{kﾃ､ytetﾃ､ﾃ､n}, -Swe. \textit{anvﾃ､nds}). - -\textbf{Note}. the rule can be overgenerating, since the \texttt{V2} need not -take a direct object. - -\begin{verbatim} - PassV2 : V2 -> VP ; -- be used -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs can be added to verb phrases. Many languages make -a distinction between adverbs that are attached in the end -vs. next to (or before) the verb. - -\begin{verbatim} - AdvVP : VP -> Adv -> VP ; -- sleep here - AdVVP : AdV -> VP -> VP ; -- always sleep -\end{verbatim} - -\textbf{Agents of passives} are constructed as adverbs with the -preposition \htmladdnormallink{Structural}{Structural.html}\texttt{.8agent\_Prep}. - -\subsubsubsection{Complements to copula} -Adjectival phrases, noun phrases, and adverbs can be used. - -\begin{verbatim} - CompAP : AP -> Comp ; -- (be) small - CompNP : NP -> Comp ; -- (be) a soldier - CompAdv : Adv -> Comp ; -- (be) here -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Coercions} -Verbs can change subcategorization patterns in systematic ways, -but this is very much language-dependent. The following two -work in all the languages we cover. - -\begin{verbatim} - UseVQ : VQ -> V2 ; -- ask (a question) - UseVS : VS -> V2 ; -- know (a secret) - - } -\end{verbatim} - -\subsection{Inflectional paradigms} -Author: -Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006 - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{Danish Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoDan.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsDan = - open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - CommonScand, - ResDan, - MorphoDan, - CatDan in { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - utrum : Gender ; - neutrum : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over case names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Case : Type ; - - nominative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type = Str ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the -last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (dreng,drengen,drenger,drengene : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function takes the singular indefinite form -and computes the other forms and the gender by a heuristic. -The heuristic is that all nouns are \texttt{utrum} with the -plural ending \textit{er///}r//. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Giving gender manually makes the heuristic more reliable. - -\begin{verbatim} - regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -This function takes the singular indefinite and definite forms; the -gender is computed from the definite form. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -This function takes the singular indefinite and definite and the plural -indefinite - -\begin{verbatim} - mk3N : (bil,bilen,biler : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, -such as \textit{fotboll}. - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a -shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to -form other prepositions. - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and -\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} -and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows - -\begin{verbatim} - regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nounPN : N -> PN ; -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular -genitive, you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (galen,galet,galne : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For regular adjectives, the other forms are derived. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -In most cases, two forms are enough. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison adjectives may need as many as five forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkADeg : (stor,stort,store,storre,storst : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending -with \textit{ig}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regADeg : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Just the comparison forms can be irregular. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregADeg : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk3ADeg : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ; - mk2ADeg : (bred,bredt : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -If comparison is formed by \textit{mer, //mest}, as in general for// -long adjective, the following pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} -A preposition is just a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -The worst case needs six forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV : (spise,spiser,spises,spiste,spist,spis : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The 'regular verb' function is the first conjugation. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : (snakke : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2V : (leve,levde : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregDan}. -In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs with //vﾃｦre// as auxiliary} -By default, the auxiliary is \textit{have}. This function changes it to \textit{vﾃｦre}. - -\begin{verbatim} - vaereV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle} -The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - partV : V -> Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs} -Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as -reflexive e.g. \textit{ﾃ･ngra sig}. - -\begin{verbatim} - depV : V -> V ; - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about - dirV3 : V -> Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,to - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; - mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common - - -\subsubsection{English Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003--2005 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoEng.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -The following modules are presupposed: - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsEng = open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - MorphoEng, - CatEng - in { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - human : Gender ; - nonhuman : Gender ; - masculine : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over case names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Case : Type ; - - nominative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions are used in many-argument functions for rection. - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give all four forms and the semantic gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function captures the variants for nouns ending with -\textit{s},\textit{sh},\textit{x},\textit{z} or \textit{y}: \textit{kiss - kisses}, \textit{flash - flashes}; -\textit{fly - flies} (but \textit{toy - toys}), - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -In practice the worst case is just: give singular and plural nominative. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2N : (man,men : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -All nouns created by the previous functions are marked as -\texttt{nonhuman}. If you want a \texttt{human} noun, wrap it with the following -function: - -\begin{verbatim} - genderN : Gender -> N -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -A compound noun ia an uninflected string attached to an inflected noun, -such as \textit{baby boom}, \textit{chief executive officer}. - -\begin{verbatim} - compoundN : Str -> N -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common preposition is \textit{of}, and the following is a -shortcut for regular relational nouns with \textit{of}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN2 : Str -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to -form other prepositions. - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). - -\begin{verbatim} - cnN2 : CN -> Preposition -> N2 ; - cnN3 : CN -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows - -\begin{verbatim} - regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nounPN : N -> PN ; -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular -genitive, you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives need two forms: one for -the adjectival and one for the adverbial form (\textit{free - freely}) - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (free,freely : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For regular adjectives, the adverbial form is derived. This holds -even for cases with the variation \textit{happy - happily}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison adjectives may two more forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - ADeg : Type ; - - mkADeg : (good,better,best,well : Str) -> ADeg ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular pattern recognizes two common variations: -\textit{-e} (\textit{rude} - \textit{ruder} - \textit{rudest}) and -\textit{-y} (\textit{happy - happier - happiest - happily}) - -\begin{verbatim} - regADeg : Str -> ADeg ; -- long, longer, longest -\end{verbatim} - -However, the duplication of the final consonant is nor predicted, -but a separate pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - duplADeg : Str -> ADeg ; -- fat, fatter, fattest -\end{verbatim} - -If comparison is formed by \textit{more, //most}, as in general for// -long adjective, the following pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - compoundADeg : A -> ADeg ; -- -/more/most ridiculous -\end{verbatim} - -From a given \texttt{ADeg}, it is possible to get back to \texttt{A}. - -\begin{verbatim} - adegA : ADeg -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} -A preposition as used for rection in the lexicon, as well as to -build \texttt{PP}s in the resource API, just requires a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; - mkPrep : Str -> Prep ; -\end{verbatim} - -(These two functions are synonyms.) - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -Except for \textit{be}, the worst case needs five forms: the infinitive and -the third person singular present, the past indicative, and the -past and present participles. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV : (go, goes, went, gone, going : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular verb function recognizes the special cases where the last -character is \textit{y} (\textit{cry - cries} but \textit{buy - buys}) or \textit{s}, \textit{sh}, \textit{x}, \textit{z} -(\textit{fix - fixes}, etc). - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following variant duplicates the last letter in the forms like -\textit{rip - ripped - ripping}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regDuplV : Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregularEng}. -In practice, it is enough to give three forms, -e.g. \textit{drink - drank - drunk}, with a variant indicating consonant -duplication in the present participle. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregV : (drink, drank, drunk : Str) -> V ; - irregDuplV : (get, got, gotten : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.} -The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - partV : V -> Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Reflexive verbs} -By default, verbs are not reflexive; this function makes them that. - -\begin{verbatim} - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about - dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- give,_,to - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; - mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../abstract:../common:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{Finnish Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003--2005 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoFin.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularFin}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -The following modules are presupposed: - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsFin = open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - MorphoFin, - CatFin - in { -\end{verbatim} - -flags optimize=all ; - -\begin{verbatim} - flags optimize=noexpand ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender, number, and (some) case names, -we define the following identifiers. The application programmer -should always use these constants instead of their definitions -in \texttt{TypesInf}. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; - - Case : Type ; - nominative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; - partitive : Case ; - translative : Case ; - inessive : Case ; - elative : Case ; - illative : Case ; - adessive : Case ; - ablative : Case ; - allative : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following type is used for defining \textbf{rection}, i.e. complements -of many-place verbs and adjective. A complement can be defined by -just a case, or a pre/postposition and a case. - -\begin{verbatim} - prePrep : Case -> Str -> Prep ; -- ilman, partitive - postPrep : Case -> Str -> Prep ; -- takana, genitive - postGenPrep : Str -> Prep ; -- takana - casePrep : Case -> Prep ; -- adessive -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -The worst case gives ten forms and the semantic gender. -In practice just a couple of forms are needed, to define the different -stems, vowel alternation, and vowel harmony. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - mkN : (talo, talon, talona, taloa, taloon, - taloina,taloissa,talojen,taloja,taloihin : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular noun heuristic takes just one form (singular -nominative) and analyses it to pick the correct paradigm. -It does automatic grade alternation, and is hence not usable -for words like \textit{auto} (whose genitive would become \textit{audon}). - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : (talo : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -If \texttt{regN} does not give the correct result, one can try and give -two or three forms as follows. Examples of the use of these -functions are given in \texttt{BasicFin}. Most notably, \texttt{reg2N} is used -for nouns like \textit{kivi - kiviﾃ､}, which would otherwise become like -\textit{rivi - rivejﾃ､}. \texttt{regN3} is used e.g. for -\textit{sydﾃ､n - sydﾃ､men - sydﾃ､miﾃ､}, which would otherwise become -\textit{sydﾃ､n - sytﾃ､men}. - -\begin{verbatim} - reg2N : (savi,savia : Str) -> N ; - reg3N : (vesi,veden,vesiﾃ､ : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Some nouns have an unexpected singular partitive, e.g. \textit{meri}, \textit{lumi}. - -\begin{verbatim} - sgpartN : (meri : N) -> (merta : Str) -> N ; - nMeri : (meri : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The rest of the noun paradigms are mostly covered by the three -heuristics. - -Nouns with partitive \textit{a///}ﾃ､// are a large group. -To determine for grade and vowel alternation, three forms are usually needed: -singular nominative and genitive, and plural partitive. -Examples: \textit{talo}, \textit{kukko}, \textit{huippu}, \textit{koira}, \textit{kukka}, \textit{syylﾃ､}, \textit{sﾃ､rki}... - -\begin{verbatim} - nKukko : (kukko,kukon,kukkoja : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -A special case are nouns with no alternations: -the vowel harmony is inferred from the last letter, -which must be one of \textit{o}, \textit{u}, \textit{ﾃｶ}, \textit{y}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nTalo : (talo : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Another special case are nouns where the last two consonants -undergo regular weak-grade alternation: -\textit{kukko - kukon}, \textit{rutto - ruton}, \textit{hyppy - hypyn}, \textit{sampo - sammon}, -\textit{kunto - kunnon}, \textit{sisﾃ､ltﾃｶ - sisﾃ､llﾃｶn}, . - -\begin{verbatim} - nLukko : (lukko : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\textit{arpi - arven}, \textit{sappi - sapen}, \textit{kampi - kammen};\textit{sylki - syljen} - -\begin{verbatim} - nArpi : (arpi : Str) -> N ; - nSylki : (sylki : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Foreign words ending in consonants are actually similar to words like -\textit{malli///}mallin\textit{/}malleja\textit{, with the exception that the //i} is not attached -to the singular nominative. Examples: \textit{linux}, \textit{savett}, \textit{screen}. -The singular partitive form is used to get the vowel harmony. (N.B. more than -1-syllabic words ending in \textit{n} would have variant plural genitive and -partitive forms, like \textit{sultanien///}sultaneiden//, which are not covered.) - -\begin{verbatim} - nLinux : (linuxia : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns of at least 3 syllables ending with \textit{a} or \textit{ﾃ､}, like \textit{peruna}, \textit{tavara}, -\textit{rytinﾃ､}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nPeruna : (peruna : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following paradigm covers both nouns ending in an aspirated \textit{e}, such as -\textit{rae}, \textit{perhe}, \textit{savuke}, and also many ones ending in a consonant -(\textit{rengas}, \textit{kﾃ､tkyt}). The singular nominative and essive are given. - -\begin{verbatim} - nRae : (rae, rakeena : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following covers nouns with partitive \textit{ta///}tﾃ､//, such as -\textit{susi}, \textit{vesi}, \textit{pieni}. To get all stems and the vowel harmony, it takes -the singular nominative, genitive, and essive. - -\begin{verbatim} - nSusi : (susi,suden,sutta : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns ending with a long vowel, such as \textit{puu}, \textit{pﾃ､ﾃ､}, \textit{pii}, \textit{leikkuu}, -are inflected according to the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - nPuu : (puu : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -One-syllable diphthong nouns, such as \textit{suo}, \textit{tie}, \textit{tyﾃｶ}, are inflected by -the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - nSuo : (suo : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Many adjectives but also nouns have the nominative ending \textit{nen} which in other -cases becomes \textit{s}: \textit{nainen}, \textit{ihminen}, \textit{keltainen}. -To capture the vowel harmony, we use the partitive form as the argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - nNainen : (naista : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following covers some nouns ending with a consonant, e.g. -\textit{tilaus}, \textit{kaulin}, \textit{paimen}, \textit{laidun}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nTilaus : (tilaus,tilauksena : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Special case: - -\begin{verbatim} - nKulaus : (kulaus : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following covers nouns like \textit{nauris} and adjectives like \textit{kallis}, \textit{tyyris}. -The partitive form is taken to get the vowel harmony. - -\begin{verbatim} - nNauris : (naurista : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Separately-written compound nouns, like \textit{sambal oelek}, \textit{Urho Kekkonen}, -have only their last part inflected. - -\begin{verbatim} - compN : Str -> N -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns used as functions need a case, of which by far the commonest is -the genitive. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 ; - genN2 : N -> N2 ; - - mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Proper names can be formed by using declensions for nouns. -The plural forms are filtered away by the compiler. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPN : N -> PN ; - mkNP : N -> Number -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives are just like nouns. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : N -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Two-place adjectives need a case for the second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison adjectives have three forms. The comparative and the superlative -are always inflected in the same way, so the nominative of them is actually -enough (except for the superlative \textit{paras} of \textit{hyvﾃ､}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkADeg : (kiva : N) -> (kivempaa,kivinta : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular adjectives are based on \texttt{regN} in the positive. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : (punainen : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -The grammar does not cover the potential mood and some nominal -forms. One way to see the coverage is to linearize a verb to -a table. -The worst case needs twelve forms, as shown in the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV : (tulla,tulee,tulen,tulevat,tulkaa,tullaan, - tuli,tulin,tulisi,tullut,tultu,tullun : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following heuristics cover more and more verbs. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : (soutaa : Str) -> V ; - reg2V : (soutaa,souti : Str) -> V ; - reg3V : (soutaa,soudan,souti : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The subject case of verbs is by default nominative. This dunction can change it. - -\begin{verbatim} - subjcaseV : V -> Case -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The rest of the paradigms are special cases mostly covered by the heuristics. -A simple special case is the one with just one stem and without grade alternation. - -\begin{verbatim} - vValua : (valua : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -With two forms, the following function covers a variety of verbs, such as -\textit{ottaa}, \textit{kﾃ､yttﾃ､ﾃ､}, \textit{lﾃｶytﾃ､ﾃ､}, \textit{huoltaa}, \textit{hiihtﾃ､ﾃ､}, \textit{siirtﾃ､ﾃ､}. - -\begin{verbatim} - vKattaa : (kattaa, katan : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -When grade alternation is not present, just a one-form special case is needed -(\textit{poistaa}, \textit{ryystﾃ､ﾃ､}). - -\begin{verbatim} - vOstaa : (ostaa : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The following covers -\textit{juosta}, \textit{piestﾃ､}, \textit{nousta}, \textit{rangaista}, \textit{kﾃ､vellﾃ､}, \textit{surra}, \textit{panna}. - -\begin{verbatim} - vNousta : (nousta, nousen : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -This is for one-syllable diphthong verbs like \textit{juoda}, \textit{syﾃｶdﾃ､}. - -\begin{verbatim} - vTuoda : (tuoda : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -All the patterns above have \texttt{nominative} as subject case. -If another case is wanted, use the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - caseV : Case -> V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The verbs \textit{be} is special. - -\begin{verbatim} - vOlla : V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Two-place verbs need a case, and can have a pre- or postposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -If the complement needs just a case, the following special function can be used. - -\begin{verbatim} - caseV2 : V -> Case -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Verbs with a direct (accusative) object -are special, since their complement case is finally decided in syntax. -But this is taken care of by \texttt{ClauseFin}. - -\begin{verbatim} - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about - dirV3 : V -> Case -> V3 ; -- give,_,to - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- acc, allat -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; - mkV2V : V -> Prep -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> Prep -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are -hidden from the document. -Author: -Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006 - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{French Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoFre.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsFre = - open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - CommonRomance, - ResFre, - MorphoFre, - CatFre in { - - flags optimize=all ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - masculine : Gender ; - feminine : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings -(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that -amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the -'dative' \textit{ﾃ}). - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type ; - - accusative : Preposition ; - genitive : Preposition ; - dative : Preposition ; - - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (oeil,yeux : Str) -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function takes the singular form, -and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. The plural -heuristic currently -covers the cases \textit{pas-pas}, \textit{prix-prix}, \textit{nez-nez}, -\textit{bijou-bijoux}, \textit{cheveu-cheveux}, \textit{plateau-plateaux}, \textit{cheval-chevaux}. -The gender heuristic is less reliable: it treats as feminine all -nouns ending with \textit{e} and \textit{ion}, all others as masculine. -If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test! - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adding gender information widens the scope of the foregoing function. - -\begin{verbatim} - regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but -the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numﾃｩro de tﾃｩlﾃｩphone}. -They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since -they are frequent in lexica. - -\begin{verbatim} - compN : N -> Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{fille de x}) need a case and a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common cases are the genitive \textit{de} and the dative \textit{ﾃ}, -with the empty preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - deN2 : N -> N2 ; - aN2 : N -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connection de x ﾃ y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and -\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} -and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names need a string and a gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- Jean -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural, -you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives need four forms in the worst -case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (banal,banale,banaux,banalement : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the -masculine singular. The heuristic takes into account certain -deviant endings: \textit{banal- -banaux}, \textit{chinois- -chinois}, -\textit{heureux-heureuse-heureux}, \textit{italien-italienne}, \textit{jeune-jeune}, -\textit{amer-amﾃｨre}, \textit{carrﾃｩ- - -carrﾃｩment}, \textit{joli- - -joliment}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch -them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in -modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is -provided. - -\begin{verbatim} - prefA : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives} -Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two -adjectives: the positive (\textit{bon}), and the comparative (\textit{meilleure}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkADeg : A -> A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -If comparison is formed by \textit{plus}, as usual in French, -the following pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - compADeg : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For prefixed adjectives, the following function is -provided. - -\begin{verbatim} - prefA : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; -\end{verbatim} - -Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{toujours}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -Irregular verbs are given in the module \texttt{VerbsFre}. -If a verb should be missing in that list, the module -\texttt{BeschFre} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} book. - -Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive \textit{er} or \textit{ir}, the -latter with plural present indicative forms as \textit{finissons}. -The regular verb function is the first conjugation recognizes -these endings, as well as the variations among -\textit{aimer, cﾃｩder, placer, peser, jeter, placer, manger, assiﾃｩger, payer}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes, however, it is not predictable which variant of the \textit{er} -conjugation is to be selected. Then it is better to use the function -that gives the third person singular present indicative and future -((\textit{il}) \textit{jette}, \textit{jettera}) as second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - reg3V : (jeter,jette,jettera : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The function \texttt{regV} gives all verbs the compound auxiliary \textit{avoir}. -To change it to \textit{ﾃｪtre}, use the following function. Reflexive implies \textit{ﾃｪtre}. - -\begin{verbatim} - etreV : V -> V ; - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - v2V : V2 -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, ﾃ, de - dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- donner,_,ﾃ - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler" - deVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'essaie de parler" - aVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'arrive ﾃ parler" - mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> Preposition -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{German Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta \& Harald Hammarstrﾃｶm 2003--2006 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoGer.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularGer}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsGer = open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - MorphoGer, - CatGer - in { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - masculine : Gender ; - feminine : Gender ; - neuter : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over case names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Case : Type ; - - nominative : Case ; - accusative : Case ; - dative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give all four singular forms, two plural forms (others + dative), -and the gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (x1,_,_,_,_,x6 : Str) -> Gender -> N ; - -- mann, mann, manne, mannes, mﾃ､nner, mﾃ､nnern -\end{verbatim} - -The regular heuristics recognizes some suffixes, from which it -guesses the gender and the declension: \textit{e, ung, ion} give the -feminine with plural ending \textit{-n, -en}, and the rest are masculines -with the plural \textit{-e} (without Umlaut). - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The 'almost regular' case is much like the information given in an ordinary -dictionary. It takes the singular and plural nominative and the -gender, and infers the other forms from these. - -\begin{verbatim} - reg2N : (x1,x2 : Str) -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Relational nouns need a preposition. The most common is \textit{von} with -the dative. Some prepositions are constructed in \htmladdnormallink{StructuralGer}{StructuralGer.html}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 ; - vonN2 : N -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Use the function \texttt{mkPrep} or see the section on prepositions below to -form other prepositions. - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{die Verbindung von x nach y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows -The regular genitive is \textit{s}, omitted after \textit{s}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPN : (karolus, karoli : Str) -> PN ; -- karolus, karoli - regPN : (Johann : Str) -> PN ; -- Johann, Johanns ; Johannes, Johannes -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Adjectives need three forms, one for each degree. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (x1,_,x3 : Str) -> A ; -- gut,besser,beste -\end{verbatim} - -The regular adjective formation works for most cases, and includes -variations such as \textit{teuer - teurer}, \textit{bﾃｶse - bﾃｶser}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Invariable adjective are a special case. - -\begin{verbatim} - invarA : Str -> A ; -- prima -\end{verbatim} - -Two-place adjectives are formed by adding a preposition to an adjective. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are just strings. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} -A preposition is formed from a string and a case. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPrep : Str -> Case -> Prep ; -\end{verbatim} - -Often just a case with the empty string is enough. - -\begin{verbatim} - accPrep : Prep ; - datPrep : Prep ; - genPrep : Prep ; -\end{verbatim} - -A couple of common prepositions (always with the dative). - -\begin{verbatim} - von_Prep : Prep ; - zu_Prep : Prep ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -The worst-case constructor needs six forms: - -\begin{itemize} -\item Infinitive, -\item 3p sg pres. indicative, -\item 2p sg imperative, -\item 1/3p sg imperfect indicative, -\item 1/3p sg imperfect subjunctive (because this uncommon form can have umlaut) -\item the perfect participle -\end{itemize} - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV : (x1,_,_,_,_,x6 : Str) -> V ; -- geben, gibt, gib, gab, gﾃ､be, gegeben -\end{verbatim} - -Weak verbs are sometimes called regular verbs. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : Str -> V ; -- fﾃｼhren -\end{verbatim} - -Irregular verbs use Ablaut and, in the worst cases, also Umlaut. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregV : (x1,_,_,_,x5 : Str) -> V ; -- sehen, sieht, sah, sﾃ､he, gesehen -\end{verbatim} - -To remove the past participle prefix \textit{ge}, e.g. for the verbs -prefixed by \textit{be-, ver-}. - -\begin{verbatim} - no_geV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -To add a movable suffix e.g. \textit{auf(fassen)}. - -\begin{verbatim} - prefixV : Str -> V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -To change the auxiliary from \textit{haben} (default) to \textit{sein} and -vice-versa. - -\begin{verbatim} - seinV : V -> V ; - habenV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Reflexive verbs can take reflexive pronouns of different cases. - -\begin{verbatim} - reflV : V -> Case -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object -(accusative, transitive verbs). There is also a case for dative objects. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; - datV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about - dirV3 : V -> Prep -> V3 ; -- give,_,to - accdatV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; - mkV2V : V -> Prep -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Prep -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{Italian Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoIta.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsIta = - open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - CommonRomance, - ResIta, - MorphoIta, - BeschIta, - CatIta in { - - flags optimize=all ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - masculine : Gender ; - feminine : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings -(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that -amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the -'dative' \textit{ﾃ}). - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type ; - - accusative : Preposition ; - genitive : Preposition ; - dative : Preposition ; - - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give both two forms and the gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (uomi,uomini : Str) -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function takes the singular form and the gender, -and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. -The heuristic says that the gender is feminine for nouns -ending with \textit{a}, and masculine for all other words. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -To force a different gender, use one of the following functions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mascN : N -> N ; - femN : N -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but -the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numﾃｩro de tﾃｩlﾃｩphone}. -They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since -they are frequent in lexica. - -\begin{verbatim} - compN : N -> Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{figlio di x}) need a case and a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common cases are the genitive \textit{di} and the dative \textit{a}, -with the empty preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - diN2 : N -> N2 ; - aN2 : N -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connessione di x a y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and -\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} -and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names need a string and a gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- Jean -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural, -you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst -case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (solo,sola,soli,sole, solamente : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the -masculine singular. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch -them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in -modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is -provided. - -\begin{verbatim} - prefA : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives} -Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two -adjectives: the positive (\textit{buono}), and the comparative (\textit{migliore}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkADeg : A -> A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -If comparison is formed by \textit{piﾃｹ}, as usual in Italian, -the following pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - compADeg : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular pattern is the same as \texttt{regA} for plain adjectives, -with comparison by \textit{plus}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regADeg : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; -\end{verbatim} - -Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{sempre}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -Regular verbs are ones with the infinitive \textit{er} or \textit{ir}, the -latter with plural present indicative forms as \textit{finissons}. -The regular verb function is the first conjugation recognizes -these endings, as well as the variations among -\textit{aimer, cﾃｩder, placer, peser, jeter, placer, manger, assiﾃｩger, payer}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The module \texttt{BeschIta} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} -book. To use them in the category \texttt{V}, wrap them with the function - -\begin{verbatim} - verboV : Verbo -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The function \texttt{regV} gives all verbs the compound auxiliary \textit{avere}. -To change it to \textit{essere}, use the following function. -Reflexive implies \textit{essere}. - -\begin{verbatim} - essereV : V -> V ; - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - v2V : V2 -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, ﾃ, de - dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- donner,_,ﾃ - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler" - deVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'essaie de parler" - aVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'arrive ﾃ parler" - mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> Preposition -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{The definitions of the paradigms} -The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are -hidden from the document. -Author: -Last update: Tue Jun 13 11:43:19 2006 - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{Norwegian Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoNor.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsNor = - open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - CommonScand, - ResNor, - MorphoNor, - CatNor in { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - masculine : Gender ; - feminine : Gender ; - neutrum : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over case names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Case : Type ; - - nominative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type = Str ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the -last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (dreng,drengen,drenger,drengene : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function takes the singular indefinite form -and computes the other forms and the gender by a heuristic. -The heuristic is that nouns ending \textit{e} are feminine like \textit{kvinne}, -all others are masculine like \textit{bil}. -If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test! - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Giving gender manually makes the heuristic more reliable. - -\begin{verbatim} - regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -This function takes the singular indefinite and definite forms; the -gender is computed from the definite form. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2N : (bil,bilen : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, -such as \textit{fotboll}. - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a -shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to -form other prepositions. - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and -\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} -and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows - -\begin{verbatim} - regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nounPN : N -> PN ; -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular -genitive, you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives need three forms: - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (galen,galet,galne : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For regular adjectives, the other forms are derived. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -In most cases, two forms are enough. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2A : (stor,stort : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison adjectives may need as many as five forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkADeg : (stor,stort,store,storre,storst : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending -with \textit{ig}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regADeg : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Just the comparison forms can be irregular. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregADeg : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk3ADeg : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ; - mk2ADeg : (bred,bredt : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -If comparison is formed by \textit{mer, //mest}, as in general for// -long adjective, the following pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/mer/mest norsk -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} -A preposition is just a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -The worst case needs six forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV : (spise,spiser,spises,spiste,spist,spis : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The 'regular verb' function is the first conjugation. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : (snakke : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2V : (leve,levde : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregNor}. -In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregV : (drikke, drakk, drukket : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs with //vﾃｦre// as auxiliary} -By default, the auxiliary is \textit{have}. This function changes it to \textit{vﾃｦre}. - -\begin{verbatim} - vaereV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.} -The particle, such as in \textit{switch on}, is given as a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - partV : V -> Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs.} -Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as -reflexive e.g. \textit{ﾃ･ngra sig}. - -\begin{verbatim} - depV : V -> V ; - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about - dirV3 : V -> Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,to - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; - mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common - - -\subsubsection{Russian Lexical Paradigms} -Janna Khegai 2003--2005 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoEng.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -The following modules are presupposed: - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsRus = open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - MorphoRus, - CatRus, - NounRus - in { - - flags coding=utf8 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - masculine : Gender ; - feminine : Gender ; - neuter : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over case names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Case : Type ; - - nominative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; - dative : Case ; - accusative : Case ; - instructive : Case ; - prepositional : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -In some (written in English) textbooks accusative case -is put on the second place. However, we follow the case order -standard for Russian textbooks. -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Best case: indeclinabe nouns: \textit{ﾃ青ｺﾃ青ｾﾃ堕ﾃ青ｵ}, \textit{ﾃ青ｿﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｻﾃ堕古堕づ青ｾ}, \textit{ﾃ青津青｣ﾃ青抑. - -\begin{verbatim} - Animacy: Type ; - - animate: Animacy; - inanimate: Animacy; - - mkIndeclinableNoun: Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Worst case - give six singular forms: -Nominative, Genetive, Dative, Accusative, Instructive and Prepositional; -corresponding six plural forms and the gender. -May be the number of forms needed can be reduced, -but this requires a separate investigation. -Animacy parameter (determining whether the Accusative form is equal -to the Nominative or the Genetive one) is actually of no help, -since there are a lot of exceptions and the gain is just one form less. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> Gender -> Animacy -> N ; - - -- ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｰ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ堕, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｵ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ堕, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｹ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｵ - -- ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ堕, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｼ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｼﾃ青ｸ, ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕ε青ｶﾃ堕ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｰﾃ堕 -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function captures the variants for some popular nouns -endings below: - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Here are some common patterns. The list is far from complete. -Feminine patterns. - -\begin{verbatim} - nMashina : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ青ｰ", Inst -"ﾃ青ｼﾃ青ｰﾃ堕暗青ｸﾃ青ｽ-ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｹ" - nEdinica : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ青ｰ", Inst -"ﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｴﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｸﾃ堕-ﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｹ" - nZhenchina : Str -> N ; -- feminine, animate, ending with "-a" - nNoga : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "ﾃ青ｳ_ﾃ青ｺ_ﾃ堕-a" - nMalyariya : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ青ｸﾃ堕" - nTetya : Str -> N ; -- feminine, animate, ending with "-ﾃ堕" - nBol : Str -> N ; -- feminine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ堕"(soft sign) -\end{verbatim} - -Neuter patterns. - -\begin{verbatim} - nObezbolivauchee : Str -> N ; -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-ee" - nProizvedenie : Str -> N ; -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-e" - nChislo : Str -> N ; -- neutral, inanimate, ending with "-o" - nZhivotnoe : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｽﾃ堕" -\end{verbatim} - -Masculine patterns. -Ending with consonant: - -\begin{verbatim} - nPepel : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｻ"- "ﾃ青ｿﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｿ-ﾃ青ｻﾃ青ｰ" - - nBrat: Str -> N ; -- animate, ﾃ青ｱﾃ堕ﾃ青ｰﾃ堕-ﾃ堕古堕 - nStul: Str -> N ; -- same as above, but inanimate - nMalush : Str -> N ; -- ﾃ青ｼﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｻﾃ堕凝堕暗青ｵﾃ青ｹ - nPotolok : Str -> N ; -- ﾃ青ｿﾃ青ｾﾃ堕づ青ｾﾃ青ｻ-ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｺ - ﾃ青ｿﾃ青ｾﾃ堕づ青ｾﾃ青ｻ-ﾃ青ｺﾃ青ｰ - - -- the next four differ in plural nominative and/or accusative form(s) : - nBank: Str -> N ; -- ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｺ-ﾃ青ｸ (Nom=Acc) - nStomatolog : Str -> N ; -- same as above, but animate - nAdres : Str -> N ; -- ﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｴﾃ堕ﾃ青ｵﾃ堕-ﾃ青ｰ (Nom=Acc) - nTelefon : Str -> N ; -- ﾃ堕づ青ｵﾃ青ｻﾃ青ｵﾃ堕ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｽ-ﾃ堕 (Nom=Acc) - - nNol : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ堕" (soft sign) - nUroven : Str -> N ; -- masculine, inanimate, ending with "-ﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｽﾃ堕" -\end{verbatim} - -Nouns used as functions need a preposition. The most common is with Genitive. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkFun : N -> Prep -> N2 ; - mkN2 : N -> N2 ; - mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Proper names. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPN : Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> PN ; -- "ﾃ青佚青ｲﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｽ", "ﾃ青愿青ｰﾃ堕暗青ｰ" - nounPN : N -> PN ; -\end{verbatim} - -On the top level, it is maybe \texttt{CN} that is used rather than \texttt{N}, and -\texttt{NP} rather than \texttt{PN}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkCN : N -> CN ; - mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Animacy -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison (only positive degree) one-place adjectives need 28 (4 by 7) -forms in the worst case: -Masculine $|$ Feminine $|$ Neutral $|$ Plural -Nominative -Genitive -Dative -Accusative Inanimate -Accusative Animate -Instructive -Prepositional -Notice that 4 short forms, which exist for some adjectives are not included -in the current description, otherwise there would be 32 forms for -positive degree. -mkA : ( : Str) -$>$ A ; -The regular function captures the variants for some popular adjective -endings below: - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Invariable adjective is a special case. - -\begin{verbatim} - adjInvar : Str -> A ; -- khaki, mini, hindi, netto -\end{verbatim} - -Some regular patterns depending on the ending. - -\begin{verbatim} - AStaruyj : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ﾃ堕凝青ｹ" - AMalenkij : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｹ", Gen - "ﾃ青ｼﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｻﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｽﾃ堕古青ｺ-ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｳﾃ青ｾ" - AKhoroshij : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｹ", Gen - "ﾃ堕ﾃ青ｾﾃ堕ﾃ青ｾﾃ堕-ﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｳﾃ青ｾ" - AMolodoj : Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｹ", - -- plural - ﾃ青ｼﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｻﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｴ-ﾃ堕凝青ｵ" - AKakoj_Nibud : Str -> Str -> Str -> A ; -- ending with "-ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｹ", - -- plural - "ﾃ青ｺﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｺ-ﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｵ" -\end{verbatim} - -Two-place adjectives need a preposition and a case as extra arguments. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Str -> Case -> A2 ; -- "ﾃ青ｴﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｻﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｼ ﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｰ" -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison adjectives need a positive adjective -(28 forms without short forms). -Taking only one comparative form (non-syntaxic) and -only one superlative form (syntaxic) we can produce the -comparison adjective with only one extra argument - -non-syntaxic comparative form. -Syntaxic forms are based on the positive forms. -mkADeg : A -$>$ Str -$>$ ADeg ; -On top level, there are adjectival phrases. The most common case is -just to use a one-place adjective. -ap : A -$>$ IsPostfixAdj -$>$ AP ; - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -In our lexicon description (\textit{Verbum}) there are 62 forms: -2 (Voice) by \{ 1 (infinitive) + [2(number) by 3 (person)](imperative) + -[ [2(Number) by 3(Person)](present) + [2(Number) by 3(Person)](future) + -4(GenNum)(past) ](indicative)+ 4 (GenNum) (subjunctive) \} -Participles (Present and Past) and Gerund forms are not included, -since they fuction more like Adjectives and Adverbs correspondingly -rather than verbs. Aspect regarded as an inherent parameter of a verb. -Notice, that some forms are never used for some verbs. Actually, -the majority of verbs do not have many of the forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - Voice: Type; - Aspect: Type; -\end{verbatim} - -Tense : Type; - -\begin{verbatim} - Bool: Type; - Conjugation: Type ; - - first: Conjugation; -- "ﾃ青ｳﾃ堕ε青ｻﾃ堕-ﾃ青陛堕暗堕, ﾃ青ｳﾃ堕ε青ｻﾃ堕-ﾃ青陛青ｼ" - firstE: Conjugation; -- Verbs with vowel "ﾃ堕": "ﾃ青ｴﾃ青ｰﾃ堕妥堕暗堕" (give), "ﾃ青ｿﾃ堕古堕妥堕暗堕" (drink) - second: Conjugation; -- "ﾃ青ｲﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｴ-ﾃ青佚堕暗堕, ﾃ青ｲﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｴ-ﾃ青佚青ｼ" - mixed: Conjugation; -- "ﾃ堕ﾃ青ｾﾃ堕-ﾃ青陛堕暗堕 - ﾃ堕ﾃ青ｾﾃ堕-ﾃ青佚青ｼ" - dolzhen: Conjugation; -- irregular - - true: Bool; - false: Bool; - - active: Voice ; - passive: Voice ; - imperfective: Aspect; - perfective: Aspect ; -\end{verbatim} - -present : Tense ; -past : Tense ; -The worst case need 6 forms of the present tense in indicative mood -(\textit{ﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｳﾃ堕マ, \textit{ﾃ堕づ堕 ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｸﾃ堕暗堕迎, \textit{ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｽ ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｸﾃ堕}, \textit{ﾃ青ｼﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｼ}, \textit{ﾃ青ｲﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｸﾃ堕づ青ｵ}, \textit{ﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｸ ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｳﾃ堕ε堕}), -a past form (singular, masculine: \textit{ﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｰﾃ青ｻ}), an imperative form -(singular, second person: \textit{ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｳﾃ青ｸ}), an infinitive (\textit{ﾃ青ｱﾃ青ｵﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｰﾃ堕づ堕迎). -Inherent aspect should also be specified. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkVerbum : Aspect -> (_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Common conjugation patterns are two conjugations: -first - verbs ending with \textit{-ﾃ青ｰﾃ堕づ堕/-ﾃ堕湘堕づ堕迎 and second - \textit{-ﾃ青ｸﾃ堕づ堕/-ﾃ青ｵﾃ堕づ堕迎. -Instead of 6 present forms of the worst case, we only need -a present stem and one ending (singular, first person): -\textit{ﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱ-ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕枝, \textit{ﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｴ-ﾃ堕マ, etc. To determine where the border -between stem and ending lies it is sufficient to compare -first person from with second person form: -\textit{ﾃ堕 ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱ-ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕枝, \textit{ﾃ堕づ堕 ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱ-ﾃ青ｸﾃ堕暗堕迎. Stems shoud be the same. -So the definition for verb \textit{ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱﾃ青ｸﾃ堕づ堕迎 looks like: -regV Imperfective Second \textit{ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱ} \textit{ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕枝 \textit{ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｻ} \textit{ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱﾃ青ｸ} \textit{ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱﾃ青ｸﾃ堕づ堕迎; - -\begin{verbatim} - regV :Aspect -> Conjugation -> (_,_,_,_,_ : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -For writing an application grammar one usualy doesn't need -the whole inflection table, since each verb is used in -a particular context that determines some of the parameters -(Tense and Voice while Aspect is fixed from the beginning) for certain usage. -The \textit{V} type, that have these parameters fixed. -We can extract the \textit{V} from the lexicon. -mkV: Verbum -$>$ Voice -$>$ V ; -mkPresentV: Verbum -$>$ Voice -$>$ V ; -Two-place verbs, and the special case with direct object. Notice that -a particle can be included in a \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Str -> Case -> V2 ; -- "ﾃ青ｲﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｹﾃ堕づ青ｸ ﾃ青ｲ ﾃ青ｴﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｼ"; "ﾃ青ｲ", accusative - mkV3 : V -> Str -> Str -> Case -> Case -> V3 ; -- "ﾃ堕ﾃ青ｻﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｶﾃ青ｸﾃ堕づ堕 ﾃ青ｿﾃ青ｸﾃ堕ﾃ堕古青ｼﾃ青ｾ ﾃ青ｲ ﾃ青ｺﾃ青ｾﾃ青ｽﾃ青ｲﾃ青ｵﾃ堕ﾃ堕" - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -- "ﾃ青ｲﾃ青ｸﾃ青ｴﾃ青ｵﾃ堕づ堕", "ﾃ青ｻﾃ堕偲青ｱﾃ青ｸﾃ堕づ堕" - tvDirDir : V -> V3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../romance:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{Spanish Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoSpa.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsSpa = - open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - CommonRomance, - ResSpa, - MorphoSpa, - BeschSpa, - CatSpa in { - - flags optimize=all ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - masculine : Gender ; - feminine : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions used in many-argument functions are either strings -(including the 'accusative' empty string) or strings that -amalgamate with the following word (the 'genitive' \textit{de} and the -'dative' \textit{ﾃ}). - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type ; - - accusative : Preposition ; - genitive : Preposition ; - dative : Preposition ; - - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: two forms (singular + plural), -and the gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (_,_ : Str) -> Gender -> N ; -- uomo, uomini, masculine -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function takes the singular form and the gender, -and computes the plural and the gender by a heuristic. -The heuristic says that the gender is feminine for nouns -ending with \textit{a} or \textit{z}, and masculine for all other words. -Nouns ending with \textit{a}, \textit{o}, \textit{e} have the plural with \textit{s}, -those ending with \textit{z} have \textit{ces} in plural; all other nouns -have \textit{es} as plural ending. The accent is not dealt with. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -To force a different gender, use one of the following functions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mascN : N -> N ; - femN : N -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -Some nouns are ones where the first part is inflected as a noun but -the second part is not inflected. e.g. \textit{numﾃｩro de tﾃｩlﾃｩphone}. -They could be formed in syntax, but we give a shortcut here since -they are frequent in lexica. - -\begin{verbatim} - compN : N -> Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{fille de x}) need a case and a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common cases are the genitive \textit{de} and the dative \textit{a}, -with the empty preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - deN2 : N -> N2 ; - aN2 : N -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{la connessione di x a y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and -\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} -and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names need a string and a gender. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- Jean -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural, -you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Gender -> Number -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Non-comparison one-place adjectives need five forms in the worst -case (masc and fem singular, masc plural, adverbial). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (solo,sola,soli,sole, solamente : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -For regular adjectives, all other forms are derived from the -masculine singular. The types of adjectives that are recognized are -\textit{alto}, \textit{fuerte}, \textit{util}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -These functions create postfix adjectives. To switch -them to prefix ones (i.e. ones placed before the noun in -modification, as in \textit{petite maison}), the following function is -provided. - -\begin{verbatim} - prefA : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Comparison adjectives} -Comparison adjectives are in the worst case put up from two -adjectives: the positive (\textit{bueno}), and the comparative (\textit{mejor}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkADeg : A -> A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -If comparison is formed by \textit{mas}, as usual in Spanish, -the following pattern is used: - -\begin{verbatim} - compADeg : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular pattern is the same as \texttt{regA} for plain adjectives, -with comparison by \textit{mas}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regADeg : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; -\end{verbatim} - -Some appear next to the verb (e.g. \textit{siempre}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -Regular verbs are ones inflected like \textit{cortar}, \textit{deber}, or \textit{vivir}. -The regular verb function is the first conjugation (\textit{ar}) recognizes -the variations corresponding to the patterns -\textit{actuar, cazar, guiar, pagar, sacar}. The module \texttt{BeschSpa} gives -the complete set of \textit{Bescherelle} conjugations. - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The module \texttt{BeschSpa} gives all the patterns of the \textit{Bescherelle} -book. To use them in the category \texttt{V}, wrap them with the function - -\begin{verbatim} - verboV : Verbum -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -To form reflexive verbs: - -\begin{verbatim} - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Verbs with a deviant passive participle: just give the participle -in masculine singular form as second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - special_ppV : V -> Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -You can reuse a \texttt{V2} verb in \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - v2V : V2 -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- parler, ﾃ, de - dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- donner,_,ﾃ - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- donner,_,_ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Preposition -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; -- plain infinitive: "je veux parler" - deVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'essaie de parler" - aVV : V -> VV ; -- "j'arrive ﾃ parler" - mkV2V : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Preposition -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Preposition -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> Preposition -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Preposition -> Preposition -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\commOut{Produced by -gfdoc - a rudimentary GF document generator. -(c) Aarne Ranta (\htmladdnormallink{aarne@cs.chalmers.se}{mailto:aarne@cs.chalmers.se}) 2002 under GNU GPL.} - -== - -\# -path=.:../scandinavian:../common:../abstract:../../prelude - - -\subsubsection{Swedish Lexical Paradigms} -Aarne Ranta 2003 - -This is an API to the user of the resource grammar -for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming -expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs. - -Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are -accessed through the resource syntax API, \texttt{Structural.gf}. - -The main difference with \texttt{MorphoSwe.gf} is that the types -referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover -had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather -than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms. - -The structure of functions for each word class \texttt{C} is the following: -first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all -regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function \texttt{mkC}, which serves as an -escape to construct the most irregular words of type \texttt{C}. -However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a -separate module \texttt{IrregularEng}, which covers all irregularly inflected -words. - -\begin{verbatim} - resource ParadigmsSwe = - open - (Predef=Predef), - Prelude, - CommonScand, - ResSwe, - MorphoSwe, - CatSwe in { -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Parameters} -To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers. - -\begin{verbatim} - oper - Gender : Type ; - - utrum : Gender ; - neutrum : Gender ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over number names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Number : Type ; - - singular : Number ; - plural : Number ; -\end{verbatim} - -To abstract over case names, we define the following. - -\begin{verbatim} - Case : Type ; - - nominative : Case ; - genitive : Case ; -\end{verbatim} - -Prepositions used in many-argument functions are just strings. - -\begin{verbatim} - Preposition : Type = Str ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Nouns} -Worst case: give all four forms. The gender is computed from the -last letter of the second form (if \textit{n}, then \texttt{utrum}, otherwise \texttt{neutrum}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN : (apa,apan,apor,aporna : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular function takes the singular indefinite form and computes the other -forms and the gender by a heuristic. The heuristic is currently -to treat all words ending with \textit{a} like \textit{flicka}, with \textit{e} like \textit{rike}, -and otherwise like \textit{bil}. -If in doubt, use the \texttt{cc} command to test! - -\begin{verbatim} - regN : Str -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adding the gender manually greatly improves the correction of \texttt{regN}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regGenN : Str -> Gender -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -In practice the worst case is often just: give singular and plural indefinite. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2N : (nyckel,nycklar : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -This heuristic takes just the plural definite form and infers the others. -It does not work if there are changes in the stem. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk1N : (bilarna : Str) -> N ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Compound nouns} -All the functions above work quite as well to form compound nouns, -such as \textit{fotboll}. - -\subsubsubsection{Relational nouns} -Relational nouns (\textit{daughter of x}) need a preposition. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN2 : N -> Preposition -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -The most common preposition is \textit{av}, and the following is a -shortcut for regular, \texttt{nonhuman} relational nouns with \textit{av}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regN2 : Str -> Gender -> N2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -Use the function \texttt{mkPreposition} or see the section on prepositions below to -form other prepositions. - -Three-place relational nouns (\textit{the connection from x to y}) need two prepositions. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkN3 : N -> Preposition -> Preposition -> N3 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Relational common noun phrases} -In some cases, you may want to make a complex \texttt{CN} into a -relational noun (e.g. \textit{the old town hall of}). However, \texttt{N2} and -\texttt{N3} are purely lexical categories. But you can use the \texttt{AdvCN} -and \texttt{PrepNP} constructions to build phrases like this. - -\subsubsubsection{Proper names and noun phrases} -Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed as follows - -\begin{verbatim} - regPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. \textit{Bank}. - -\begin{verbatim} - nounPN : N -> PN ; -\end{verbatim} - -To form a noun phrase that can also be plural and have an irregular -genitive, you can use the worst-case function. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkNP : Str -> Str -> Number -> Gender -> NP ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adjectives} -Adjectives may need as many as seven forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA : (liten, litet, lilla, sma, mindre, minst, minsta : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -The regular pattern works for many adjectives, e.g. those ending -with \textit{ig}. - -\begin{verbatim} - regA : Str -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Just the comparison forms can be irregular. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregA : (tung,tyngre,tyngst : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Sometimes just the positive forms are irregular. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk3A : (galen,galet,galna : Str) -> A ; - mk2A : (bred,brett : Str) -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -Comparison forms may be compound (\textit{mera svensk} - \textit{mest svensk}). - -\begin{verbatim} - compoundA : A -> A ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place adjectives} -Two-place adjectives need a preposition for their second argument. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkA2 : A -> Preposition -> A2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Adverbs} -Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position -after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. \textit{always}). - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdv : Str -> Adv ; - mkAdV : Str -> AdV ; -\end{verbatim} - -Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkAdA : Str -> AdA ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Prepositions} -A preposition is just a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkPreposition : Str -> Preposition ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs} -The worst case needs five forms. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV : (supa,super,sup,sﾃｶp,supit,supen : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The 'regular verb' function is inspired by Lexin. It uses the -present tense indicative form. The value is the first conjugation if the -argument ends with \textit{ar} (\textit{tala} - \textit{talar} - \textit{talade} - \textit{talat}), -the second with \textit{er} (\textit{leka} - \textit{leker} - \textit{lekte} - \textit{lekt}, with the -variations like \textit{grﾃ､va}, \textit{vﾃ､nda}, \textit{tyda}, \textit{hyra}), and -the third in other cases (\textit{bo} - \textit{bor} - \textit{bodde} - \textit{bott}). - -\begin{verbatim} - regV : (talar : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -The almost regular verb function needs the infinitive and the preteritum. -It is not really more powerful than the new implementation of -\texttt{regV} based on the indicative form. - -\begin{verbatim} - mk2V : (leka,lekte : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module \texttt{IrregularSwe}. -In practice, it is enough to give three forms, as in school books. - -\begin{verbatim} - irregV : (dricka, drack, druckit : Str) -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Verbs with a particle.} -The particle, such as in \textit{passa pﾃ･}, is given as a string. - -\begin{verbatim} - partV : V -> Str -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Deponent verbs.} -Some words are used in passive forms only, e.g. \textit{hoppas}, some as -reflexive e.g. \textit{ﾃ･ngra sig}. - -\begin{verbatim} - depV : V -> V ; - reflV : V -> V ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Two-place verbs} -Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object. -(transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV2 : V -> Preposition -> V2 ; - - dirV2 : V -> V2 ; -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Three-place verbs} -Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which -the first one or both can be absent. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV3 : V -> Preposition -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- tala med om - dirV3 : V -> Preposition -> V3 ; -- ge _ till - dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ; -- ge _ _ -\end{verbatim} - -\subsubsubsection{Other complement patterns} -Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences, -questions, verb phrases, and adjectives. - -\begin{verbatim} - mkV0 : V -> V0 ; - mkVS : V -> VS ; - mkV2S : V -> Str -> V2S ; - mkVV : V -> VV ; - mkV2V : V -> Str -> Str -> V2V ; - mkVA : V -> VA ; - mkV2A : V -> Str -> V2A ; - mkVQ : V -> VQ ; - mkV2Q : V -> Str -> V2Q ; - - mkAS : A -> AS ; - mkA2S : A -> Str -> A2S ; - mkAV : A -> AV ; - mkA2V : A -> Str -> A2V ; -\end{verbatim} - -Notice: categories \texttt{V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q} are in v 1.0 treated -just as synonyms of \texttt{V2}, and the second argument is given -as an adverb. Likewise \texttt{AS, A2S, AV, A2V} are just \texttt{A}. -\texttt{V0} is just \texttt{V}. - -\begin{verbatim} - V0, V2S, V2V, V2A, V2Q : Type ; - AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ; -\end{verbatim} - -\end{document} |