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authoraarne <aarne@chalmers.se>2009-06-22 15:39:08 +0000
committeraarne <aarne@chalmers.se>2009-06-22 15:39:08 +0000
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treec7d46bbd0494043b4bd6f917a25a7687517d0547 /next-lib/src/english/ParadigmsEng.gf
parent3049b59b35b25381a7c6787444165c200d66e08b (diff)
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---# -path=.:../abstract:../../prelude:../common
-
---1 English Lexical Paradigms
---
--- Aarne Ranta 2003--2005
---
--- This is an API for the user of the resource grammar
--- for adding lexical items. It gives functions for forming
--- expressions of open categories: nouns, adjectives, verbs.
---
--- Closed categories (determiners, pronouns, conjunctions) are
--- accessed through the resource syntax API, $Structural.gf$.
---
--- The main difference with $MorphoEng.gf$ is that the types
--- referred to are compiled resource grammar types. We have moreover
--- had the design principle of always having existing forms, rather
--- than stems, as string arguments of the paradigms.
---
--- The structure of functions for each word class $C$ is the following:
--- first we give a handful of patterns that aim to cover all
--- regular cases. Then we give a worst-case function $mkC$, which serves as an
--- escape to construct the most irregular words of type $C$.
--- However, this function should only seldom be needed: we have a
--- separate module [``IrregEng`` ../../english/IrregEng.gf],
--- which covers irregular verbss.
-
-resource ParadigmsEng = open
- (Predef=Predef),
- Prelude,
- MorphoEng,
- ResEng,
- CatEng
- in {
---2 Parameters
---
--- To abstract over gender names, we define the following identifiers.
-
-oper
- Gender : Type ;
-
- human : Gender ;
- nonhuman : Gender ;
- masculine : Gender ;
- feminine : Gender ;
-
--- To abstract over number names, we define the following.
-
- Number : Type ;
-
- singular : Number ;
- plural : Number ;
-
--- To abstract over case names, we define the following.
-
- Case : Type ;
-
- nominative : Case ;
- genitive : Case ;
-
--- Prepositions are used in many-argument functions for rection.
--- The resource category $Prep$ is used.
-
-
-
---2 Nouns
-
--- Nouns are constructed by the function $mkN$, which takes a varying
--- number of arguments.
-
- mkN : overload {
-
--- The regular function captures the variants for nouns ending with
--- "s","sh","x","z" or "y": "kiss - kisses", "flash - flashes";
--- "fly - flies" (but "toy - toys"),
-
- mkN : (flash : Str) -> N ;
-
--- In practice the worst case is to give singular and plural nominative.
-
- mkN : (man,men : Str) -> N ;
-
--- The theoretical worst case: give all four forms.
-
- mkN : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> N ;
-
--- Change gender from the default $nonhuman$.
-
- mkN : Gender -> N -> N ;
-
---3 Compound nouns
---
--- A compound noun is an uninflected string attached to an inflected noun,
--- such as "baby boom", "chief executive officer".
-
- mkN : Str -> N -> N
- } ;
-
-
---3 Relational nouns
-
- mkN2 : overload {
- mkN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 ; -- access to
- mkN2 : N -> Str -> N2 ; -- access to
- mkN2 : Str -> Str -> N2 ; -- access to
- mkN2 : N -> N2 ; -- wife of
- mkN2 : Str -> N2 -- daughter of
- } ;
-
--- Use the function $mkPrep$ or see the section on prepositions below to
--- form other prepositions.
---
--- Three-place relational nouns ("the connection from x to y") need two prepositions.
-
- mkN3 : N -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ;
-
-
-
---3 Proper names and noun phrases
---
--- Proper names, with a regular genitive, are formed from strings.
-
- mkPN : overload {
-
- mkPN : Str -> PN ;
-
--- Sometimes a common noun can be reused as a proper name, e.g. "Bank"
-
- mkPN : N -> PN
- } ;
-
---3 Determiners and quantifiers
-
- mkQuant : overload {
- mkQuant : (this, these : Str) -> Quant ;
- mkQuant : (no_sg, no_pl, none_sg, non_pl : Str) -> Quant ;
- } ;
-
- mkOrd : Str -> Ord ;
-
---2 Adjectives
-
- mkA : overload {
-
--- For regular adjectives, the adverbial and comparison forms are derived. This holds
--- even for cases with the variations "happy - happily - happier - happiest",
--- "free - freely - freer - freest", and "rude - rudest".
-
- mkA : (happy : Str) -> A ;
-
--- However, the duplication of the final consonant cannot be predicted,
--- but a separate case is used to give the comparative
-
- mkA : (fat,fatter : Str) -> A ;
-
--- As many as four forms may be needed.
-
- mkA : (good,better,best,well : Str) -> A
- } ;
-
--- Regular comparison is formed by "more - most" for words with two vowels separated
--- and terminated by some other letters. To force this or the opposite,
--- the following can be used:
-
- compoundA : A -> A ; -- -/more/most ditto
- simpleA : A -> A ; -- young,younger,youngest
-
-
---3 Two-place adjectives
-
- mkA2 : overload {
- mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ; -- absent from
- mkA2 : A -> Str -> A2 ; -- absent from
- mkA2 : Str -> Prep -> A2 ; -- absent from
- mkA2 : Str -> Str -> A2 -- absent from
-
- } ;
-
-
---2 Adverbs
-
--- Adverbs are not inflected. Most lexical ones have position
--- after the verb. Some can be preverbal (e.g. "always").
-
- mkAdv : Str -> Adv ;
- mkAdV : Str -> AdV ;
-
--- Adverbs modifying adjectives and sentences can also be formed.
-
- mkAdA : Str -> AdA ;
-
--- Adverbs modifying numerals
-
- mkAdN : Str -> AdN ;
-
---2 Prepositions
---
--- A preposition as used for rection in the lexicon, as well as to
--- build $PP$s in the resource API, just requires a string.
-
- mkPrep : Str -> Prep ;
- noPrep : Prep ;
-
--- (These two functions are synonyms.)
-
---2 Conjunctions
---
-
- mkConj : overload {
- mkConj : Str -> Conj ; -- and (plural agreement)
- mkConj : Str -> Number -> Conj ; -- or (agrement number given as argument)
- mkConj : Str -> Str -> Conj ; -- both ... and (plural)
- mkConj : Str -> Str -> Number -> Conj ; -- either ... or (agrement number given as argument)
- } ;
-
---2 Verbs
---
-
--- Verbs are constructed by the function $mkV$, which takes a varying
--- number of arguments.
-
- mkV : overload {
-
--- The regular verb function recognizes the special cases where the last
--- character is "y" ("cry-cries" but "buy-buys") or a sibilant
--- ("kiss-"kisses", "jazz-jazzes", "rush-rushes", "munch - munches",
--- "fix - fixes").
-
- mkV : (cry : Str) -> V ;
-
--- Give the present and past forms for regular verbs where
--- the last letter is duplicated in some forms,
--- e.g. "rip - ripped - ripping".
-
- mkV : (stop, stopped : Str) -> V ;
-
--- There is an extensive list of irregular verbs in the module $IrregularEng$.
--- In practice, it is enough to give three forms,
--- e.g. "drink - drank - drunk".
-
- mkV : (drink, drank, drunk : Str) -> V ;
-
--- Irregular verbs with duplicated consonant in the present participle.
-
- mkV : (run, ran, run, running : Str) -> V ;
-
--- Except for "be", the worst case needs five forms: the infinitive and
--- the third person singular present, the past indicative, and the
--- past and present participles.
-
- mkV : (go, goes, went, gone, going : Str) -> V ;
-
--- Adds a prefix to an exisiting verb. This is most useful to create
--- prefix-variants of irregular verbs from $IrregEng$, e.g. "undertake".
-
- mkV : Str -> V -> V ;
- };
-
--- Verbs with a particle.
--- The particle, such as in "switch on", is given as a string.
-
- partV : V -> Str -> V ;
-
--- Reflexive verbs.
--- By default, verbs are not reflexive; this function makes them that.
-
- reflV : V -> V ;
-
---3 Two-place verbs
---
--- Two-place verbs need a preposition, except the special case with direct object.
--- (transitive verbs). Notice that a particle comes from the $V$.
-
- mkV2 : overload {
- mkV2 : Str -> V2 ; -- kill
- mkV2 : V -> V2 ; -- hit
- mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ; -- believe in
- mkV2 : V -> Str -> V2 ; -- believe in
- mkV2 : Str -> Prep -> V2 ; -- believe in
- mkV2 : Str -> Str -> V2 -- believe in
- };
-
---3 Three-place verbs
---
--- Three-place (ditransitive) verbs need two prepositions, of which
--- the first one or both can be absent.
-
- mkV3 : overload {
- mkV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ; -- speak, with, about
- mkV3 : V -> Prep -> V3 ; -- give,_,to
- mkV3 : V -> Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,to
- mkV3 : Str -> Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,to
- mkV3 : V -> V3 ; -- give,_,_
- mkV3 : Str -> V3 ; -- give,_,_
- };
-
---3 Other complement patterns
---
--- Verbs and adjectives can take complements such as sentences,
--- questions, verb phrases, and adjectives.
-
- mkV0 : V -> V0 ;
- mkVS : V -> VS ;
- mkV2S : V -> Prep -> V2S ;
- mkVV : V -> VV ;
- mkV2V : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V2V ;
- mkVA : V -> VA ;
- mkV2A : V -> Prep -> V2A ;
- mkVQ : V -> VQ ;
- mkV2Q : V -> Prep -> V2Q ;
-
- mkAS : A -> AS ;
- mkA2S : A -> Prep -> A2S ;
- mkAV : A -> AV ;
- mkA2V : A -> Prep -> A2V ;
-
--- Notice: Categories $V0, AS, A2S, AV, A2V$ are just $A$.
--- $V0$ is just $V$; the second argument is treated as adverb.
-
- V0 : Type ;
- AS, A2S, AV, A2V : Type ;
-
---2 Other categories
-
-mkSubj : Str -> Subj = \s -> lin Subj {s = s} ;
-
---.
---2 Definitions of paradigms
---
--- The definitions should not bother the user of the API. So they are
--- hidden from the document.
-
- Gender = ResEng.Gender ;
- Number = ResEng.Number ;
- Case = ResEng.Case ;
- human = Masc ;
- nonhuman = Neutr ;
- masculine = Masc ;
- feminine = Fem ;
- singular = Sg ;
- plural = Pl ;
- nominative = Nom ;
- genitive = Gen ;
-
- Preposition : Type = Str ; -- obsolete
-
- regN = \ray ->
- let rays = add_s ray
- in
- mk2N ray rays ;
-
-
- add_s : Str -> Str = \w -> case w of {
- _ + ("io" | "oo") => w + "s" ; -- radio, bamboo
- _ + ("s" | "z" | "x" | "sh" | "ch" | "o") => w + "es" ; -- bus, hero
- _ + ("a" | "o" | "u" | "e") + "y" => w + "s" ; -- boy
- x + "y" => x + "ies" ; -- fly
- _ => w + "s" -- car
- } ;
-
- duplFinal : Str -> Str = \w -> case w of {
- _ + ("a" | "e" | "o") + ("a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u") + ? => w ; -- waited, needed
- _ + ("a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u") +
- c@("b"|"d"|"g"|"m"|"n"|"p"|"r"|"t") => w + c ; -- omitted, manned
- _ => w
- } ;
-
- mk2N = \man,men ->
- let mens = case last men of {
- "s" => men + "'" ;
- _ => men + "'s"
- }
- in
- mk4N man men (man + "'s") mens ;
-
- mk4N = \man,men,man's,men's ->
- lin N (mkNoun man man's men men's ** {g = Neutr}) ;
-
- genderN g man = lin N {s = man.s ; g = g} ;
-
- compoundN s n = lin N {s = \\x,y => s ++ n.s ! x ! y ; g=n.g} ;
-
- mkPN = overload {
- mkPN : Str -> PN = regPN ;
- mkPN : N -> PN = nounPN
- } ;
-
- mkN2 = overload {
- mkN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 = prepN2 ;
- mkN2 : N -> Str -> N2 = \n,s -> prepN2 n (mkPrep s);
- mkN2 : Str -> Str -> N2 = \n,s -> prepN2 (regN n) (mkPrep s);
- mkN2 : N -> N2 = \n -> prepN2 n (mkPrep "of") ;
- mkN2 : Str -> N2 = \s -> prepN2 (regN s) (mkPrep "of")
- } ;
-
- prepN2 = \n,p -> lin N2 (n ** {c2 = p.s}) ;
- regN2 n = prepN2 (regN n) (mkPrep "of") ;
-
- mkN3 = \n,p,q -> lin N3 (n ** {c2 = p.s ; c3 = q.s}) ;
-
---3 Relational common noun phrases
---
--- In some cases, you may want to make a complex $CN$ into a
--- relational noun (e.g. "the old town hall of").
-
- cnN2 : CN -> Prep -> N2 ;
- cnN3 : CN -> Prep -> Prep -> N3 ;
-
--- This is obsolete.
- cnN2 = \n,p -> lin N2 (n ** {c2 = p.s}) ;
- cnN3 = \n,p,q -> lin N3 (n ** {c2 = p.s ; c3 = q.s}) ;
-
- regPN n = regGenPN n human ;
- regGenPN n g = lin PN {s = table {Gen => n + "'s" ; _ => n} ; g = g} ;
- nounPN n = lin PN {s = n.s ! singular ; g = n.g} ;
-
- mkQuant = overload {
- mkQuant : (this, these : Str) -> Quant = \sg,pl -> mkQuantifier sg pl sg pl;
- mkQuant : (no_sg, no_pl, none_sg, non_pl : Str) -> Quant = mkQuantifier;
- } ;
-
- mkQuantifier : Str -> Str -> Str -> Str -> Quant =
- \sg,pl,sg',pl' -> lin Quant {
- s = \\_ => table { Sg => sg ; Pl => pl } ;
- sp = \\_ => table { Sg => regGenitiveS sg' ; Pl => regGenitiveS pl'}
- } ;
-
- mkOrd : Str -> Ord = \x -> lin Ord { s = regGenitiveS x};
-
- mk2A a b = lin A (mkAdjective a a a b) ;
- regA a = case a of {
- _ + ("a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u" | "y") + ? + _ +
- ("a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u" | "y") + ? + _ =>
- lin A (compoundADeg (regADeg a)) ;
- _ => lin A (regADeg a)
- } ;
-
- prepA2 a p = lin A2 (a ** {c2 = p.s}) ;
-
- ADeg = A ; ----
-
- mkADeg a b c d = lin A (mkAdjective a b c d) ;
-
- regADeg happy =
- let
- happ = init happy ;
- y = last happy ;
- happie = case y of {
- "y" => happ + "ie" ;
- "e" => happy ;
- _ => duplFinal happy + "e"
- } ;
- happily : Str = case happy of {
- _ + "y" => happ + "ily" ;
- _ + "ll" => happy + "y" ;
- _ => happy + "ly"
- } ;
- in mkADeg happy (happie + "r") (happie + "st") happily ;
-
- duplADeg fat =
- mkADeg fat
- (fat + last fat + "er") (fat + last fat + "est") (fat + "ly") ;
-
- compoundADeg a =
- let ad = (a.s ! AAdj Posit Nom)
- in mkADeg ad ("more" ++ ad) ("most" ++ ad) (a.s ! AAdv) ;
-
- adegA a = a ;
-
- mkAdv x = lin Adv (ss x) ;
- mkAdV x = lin AdV (ss x) ;
- mkAdA x = lin AdA (ss x) ;
- mkAdN x = lin AdN (ss x) ;
-
- mkPrep p = lin Prep (ss p) ;
- noPrep = mkPrep [] ;
-
- mk5V a b c d e = lin V (mkVerb a b c d e ** {s1 = []}) ;
-
- regV cry =
- let
- cries = (regN cry).s ! Pl ! Nom ; -- !
- cried : Str = case cries of {
- _ + "es" => init cries + "d" ;
- _ => duplFinal cry + "ed"
- } ;
- crying : Str = case cry of {
- _ + "ee" => cry + "ing" ;
- d + "ie" => d + "ying" ;
- us + "e" => us + "ing" ;
- _ => duplFinal cry + "ing"
- }
- in mk5V cry cries cried cried crying ;
-
- reg2V fit fitted =
- let fitt = Predef.tk 2 fitted ;
- in mk5V fit (fit + "s") (fitt + "ed") (fitt + "ed") (fitt + "ing") ;
-
- regDuplV fit =
- case last fit of {
- ("a" | "e" | "i" | "o" | "u" | "y") =>
- Predef.error (["final duplication makes no sense for"] ++ fit) ;
- t =>
- let fitt = fit + t in
- mk5V fit (fit + "s") (fitt + "ed") (fitt + "ed") (fitt + "ing")
- } ;
-
- irregV x y z = let reg = (regV x).s in
- mk5V x (reg ! VPres) y z (reg ! VPresPart) ** {s1 = []} ;
-
- irreg4V x y z w = let reg = (regV x).s in
- mk5V x (reg ! VPres) y z w ** {s1 = []} ;
-
- irregDuplV fit y z =
- let
- fitting = (regDuplV fit).s ! VPresPart
- in
- mk5V fit (fit + "s") y z fitting ;
-
- partV v p = lin V {s = \\f => v.s ! f ++ p ; isRefl = v.isRefl} ;
- reflV v = lin V {s = v.s ; part = v.part ; isRefl = True} ;
-
- prepV2 v p = lin V2 {s = v.s ; s1 = v.s1 ; c2 = p.s ; isRefl = v.isRefl} ;
- dirV2 v = prepV2 v noPrep ;
-
- prepPrepV3 v p q =
- lin V3 {s = v.s ; s1 = v.s1 ; c2 = p.s ; c3 = q.s ; isRefl = v.isRefl} ;
- dirV3 v p = prepPrepV3 v noPrep p ;
- dirdirV3 v = dirV3 v noPrep ;
-
- mkVS v = lin VS v ;
- mkVV v = lin VV {
- s = table {VVF vf => v.s ! vf ; _ => v.s ! VInf} ;
- --- variants {}} ; not used
- isAux = False
- } ;
- mkVQ v = v ;
-
- V0 : Type = V ;
--- V2S, V2V, V2Q : Type = V2 ;
- AS, A2S, AV : Type = A ;
- A2V : Type = A2 ;
-
- mkV0 v = v ;
- mkV2S v p = prepV2 v p ;
- mkV2V v p t = lin V2V (prepV2 v p ** {isAux = False}) ;
- mkVA v = v ;
- mkV2A v p = prepV2 v p ;
- mkV2Q v p = prepV2 v p ;
-
- mkAS v = v ;
- mkA2S v p = prepA2 v p ;
- mkAV v = v ;
- mkA2V v p = prepA2 v p ;
-
-
--- pre-overload API and overload definitions
-
- mk4N : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> N ;
- regN : Str -> N ;
- mk2N : (man,men : Str) -> N ;
- genderN : Gender -> N -> N ;
- compoundN : Str -> N -> N ;
-
- mkN = overload {
- mkN : (man,men,man's,men's : Str) -> N = mk4N ;
- mkN : Str -> N = regN ;
- mkN : (man,men : Str) -> N = mk2N ;
- mkN : Gender -> N -> N = genderN ;
- mkN : Str -> N -> N = compoundN
- } ;
-
--- Relational nouns ("daughter of x") need a preposition.
-
- prepN2 : N -> Prep -> N2 ;
-
--- The most common preposition is "of", and the following is a
--- shortcut for regular relational nouns with "of".
-
- regN2 : Str -> N2 ;
-
- mk2A : (free,freely : Str) -> A ;
- regA : Str -> A ;
-
- mkA = overload {
- mkA : Str -> A = regA ;
- mkA : (fat,fatter : Str) -> A = \fat,fatter ->
- mkAdjective fat fatter (init fatter + "st") (fat + "ly") ;
- mkA : (good,better,best,well : Str) -> A = \a,b,c,d ->
- mkAdjective a b c d
- } ;
-
- compoundA = compoundADeg ;
- simpleA a =
- let ad = (a.s ! AAdj Posit Nom)
- in regADeg ad ;
-
- prepA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 ;
-
- mkA2 = overload {
- mkA2 : A -> Prep -> A2 = prepA2 ;
- mkA2 : A -> Str -> A2 = \a,p -> prepA2 a (mkPrep p) ;
- mkA2 : Str -> Prep -> A2 = \a,p -> prepA2 (regA a) p;
- mkA2 : Str -> Str -> A2 = \a,p -> prepA2 (regA a) (mkPrep p);
- } ;
-
- mk5V : (go, goes, went, gone, going : Str) -> V ;
- regV : (cry : Str) -> V ;
- reg2V : (stop, stopped : Str) -> V;
- irregV : (drink, drank, drunk : Str) -> V ;
- irreg4V : (run, ran, run, running : Str) -> V ;
-
- -- Use reg2V instead
- regDuplV : Str -> V ;
- -- Use irreg4V instead
- irregDuplV : (get, got, gotten : Str) -> V ;
-
- mkV = overload {
- mkV : (cry : Str) -> V = regV ;
- mkV : (stop, stopped : Str) -> V = reg2V ;
- mkV : (drink, drank, drunk : Str) -> V = irregV ;
- mkV : (run, ran, run, running : Str) -> V = irreg4V ;
- mkV : (go, goes, went, gone, going : Str) -> V = mk5V ;
- mkV : Str -> V -> V = prefixV
- };
-
- prepV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 ;
- dirV2 : V -> V2 ;
- prefixV : Str -> V -> V = \p,v -> v ** { s = p + v.s } ;
-
- mkV2 = overload {
- mkV2 : V -> V2 = dirV2 ;
- mkV2 : Str -> V2 = \s -> dirV2 (regV s) ;
- mkV2 : V -> Prep -> V2 = prepV2 ;
- mkV2 : V -> Str -> V2 = \v,p -> prepV2 v (mkPrep p) ;
- mkV2 : Str -> Prep -> V2 = \v,p -> prepV2 (regV v) p ;
- mkV2 : Str -> Str -> V2 = \v,p -> prepV2 (regV v) (mkPrep p)
- };
-
- prepPrepV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 ;
- dirV3 : V -> Prep -> V3 ;
- dirdirV3 : V -> V3 ;
-
- mkV3 = overload {
- mkV3 : V -> Prep -> Prep -> V3 = prepPrepV3 ;
- mkV3 : V -> Prep -> V3 = dirV3 ;
- mkV3 : V -> Str -> V3 = \v,s -> dirV3 v (mkPrep s);
- mkV3 : Str -> Str -> V3 = \v,s -> dirV3 (regV v) (mkPrep s);
- mkV3 : V -> V3 = dirdirV3 ;
- mkV3 : Str -> V3 = \v -> dirdirV3 (regV v) ;
- } ;
-
- mkConj = overload {
- mkConj : Str -> Conj = \y -> mk2Conj [] y plural ;
- mkConj : Str -> Number -> Conj = \y,n -> mk2Conj [] y n ;
- mkConj : Str -> Str -> Conj = \x,y -> mk2Conj x y plural ;
- mkConj : Str -> Str -> Number -> Conj = mk2Conj ;
- } ;
-
- mk2Conj : Str -> Str -> Number -> Conj = \x,y,n ->
- lin Conj (sd2 x y ** {n = n}) ;
-
----- obsolete
-
--- Comparison adjectives may two more forms.
-
- ADeg : Type ;
-
- mkADeg : (good,better,best,well : Str) -> ADeg ;
-
--- The regular pattern recognizes two common variations:
--- "-e" ("rude" - "ruder" - "rudest") and
--- "-y" ("happy - happier - happiest - happily")
-
- regADeg : Str -> ADeg ; -- long, longer, longest
-
--- However, the duplication of the final consonant is nor predicted,
--- but a separate pattern is used:
-
- duplADeg : Str -> ADeg ; -- fat, fatter, fattest
-
--- If comparison is formed by "more", "most", as in general for
--- long adjective, the following pattern is used:
-
- compoundADeg : A -> ADeg ; -- -/more/most ridiculous
-
--- From a given $ADeg$, it is possible to get back to $A$.
-
- adegA : ADeg -> A ;
-
-
- regPN : Str -> PN ;
- regGenPN : Str -> Gender -> PN ; -- John, John's
-
--- Sometimes you can reuse a common noun as a proper name, e.g. "Bank".
-
- nounPN : N -> PN ;
-
-
-
-} ;