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diff --git a/doc/transfer-reference.html b/doc/transfer-reference.html new file mode 100644 index 000000000..d96269db5 --- /dev/null +++ b/doc/transfer-reference.html @@ -0,0 +1,484 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.0 Transitional//EN"> +<HTML> +<HEAD> +<META NAME="generator" CONTENT="http://txt2tags.sf.net"> +<TITLE>Transfer language reference</TITLE> +</HEAD><BODY BGCOLOR="white" TEXT="black"> +<P ALIGN="center"><CENTER><H1>Transfer language reference</H1> +<FONT SIZE="4"> +<I>Author: Björn Bringert <bringert@cs.chalmers.se></I><BR> +Last update: Tue Dec 6 14:26:07 2005 +</FONT></CENTER> + +<P></P> +<HR NOSHADE SIZE=1> +<P></P> + <UL> + <LI><A HREF="#toc1">Layout syntax</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc2">Imports</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc3">Function declarations</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc4">Data type declarations</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc5">Lambda expressions</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc6">Local definitions</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc7">Types</A> + <UL> + <LI><A HREF="#function_types">Function types</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc9">Basic types</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc10">Records</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc11">Tuples</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc12">Lists</A> + </UL> + <LI><A HREF="#toc13">Pattern matching</A> + <UL> + <LI><A HREF="#toc14">Constructor patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc15">Variable patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc16">Wildcard patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc17">Record patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc18">Disjunctive patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc19">List patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc20">Tuple patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc21">String literal patterns</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc22">Integer literal patterns</A> + </UL> + <LI><A HREF="#toc23">Meta variables</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc24">Type classes</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc25">Operators</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc26">Compositional functions</A> + <LI><A HREF="#toc27">do notation</A> + </UL> + +<P></P> +<HR NOSHADE SIZE=1> +<P></P> +<P> +This document describes the features of the Transfer language. +See the <A HREF="transfer-tutorial.html">Transfer tutorial</A> +for an example of a Transfer program, and how to compile and use +Transfer programs. +</P> +<P> +Transfer is a dependently typed functional programming language +with eager evaluation. +</P> +<A NAME="toc1"></A> +<H2>Layout syntax</H2> +<P> +Transfer uses layout syntax, where the indentation of a piece of code +determines which syntactic block it belongs to. +</P> +<P> +To give the block structure of a piece of code without using layout +syntax, you can enclose the block in curly braces (<CODE>{ }</CODE>) and +separate the parts of the blocks with semicolons (<CODE>;</CODE>). +</P> +<P> +For example, this case expression: +</P> +<PRE> + case x of + p1 -> e1 + p2 -> e2 +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +is equivalent to this one: +</P> +<PRE> + case x of { + p1 -> e1 ; + p2 -> e2 + } +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +Here the layout is insignificant, as the structure is given with +braces and semicolons. Thus the above is equivalent to: +</P> +<PRE> + case x of { p1 -> e1 ; p2 -> e2 } +</PRE> +<P></P> +<A NAME="toc2"></A> +<H2>Imports</H2> +<P> +A Transfer module start with some imports. Most modules will have to +import the prelude, which contains definitons used by most programs: +</P> +<PRE> + import prelude +</PRE> +<P></P> +<A NAME="toc3"></A> +<H2>Function declarations</H2> +<P> +Functions need to be given a type and a definition. The type is given +by a typing judgement on the form: +</P> +<PRE> + f : T +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +where <CODE>f</CODE> is the function's name, and <CODE>T</CODE> its type. See +<A HREF="#function_types">Function types</A> for a how the types of functions +are written. +</P> +<P> +The definition of the function is the given as a sequence of pattern +equations. The first equation whose patterns match the function arguments +is used when the function is called. Pattern equations are on the form: +</P> +<PRE> + f p1 ... p1n = exp + ... + f qn1 ... qnm = exp +</PRE> +<P></P> +<A NAME="toc4"></A> +<H2>Data type declarations</H2> +<P> +Transfer supports Generalized Algebraic Datatypes. +They are declared thusly: +</P> +<PRE> + data D : T where + c1 : Tc1 + ... + cn : Tcn +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +Here <CODE>D</CODE> is the name of the data type, <CODE>T</CODE> is the type of the type +constructor, <CODE>c1</CODE> to <CODE>cn</CODE> are the data constructor names, and +<CODE>Tc1</CODE> to <CODE>Tcn</CODE> are their types. +</P> +<A NAME="toc5"></A> +<H2>Lambda expressions</H2> +<P> +<I>Lambda expressions</I> are terms which express functions, without +giving names to them. For example: +</P> +<PRE> + \x -> x + 1 +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +is the function which takes an argument, and returns the value of the +argument + 1. +</P> +<A NAME="toc6"></A> +<H2>Local definitions</H2> +<P> +To give local definition to some names, use: +</P> +<PRE> + let x1 : T1 = exp1 + ... + xn : Tn = expn + in exp +</PRE> +<P></P> +<A NAME="toc7"></A> +<H2>Types</H2> +<A NAME="function_types"></A> +<H3>Function types</H3> +<P> +Functions types are of the form: +</P> +<PRE> + A -> B +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +This is the type of functions which take an argument of type +<CODE>A</CODE> and returns a result of type <CODE>B</CODE>. +</P> +<P> +To write functions which take more than one argument, we use <I>currying</I>. +A function which takes n arguments is a function which takes 1 +argument and returns a function which takes n-1 arguments. Thus, +</P> +<PRE> + A -> (B -> C) +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +or, equivalently, since <CODE>-></CODE> associates to the right: +</P> +<PRE> + A -> B -> C +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +is the type of functions which take 2 arguments, the first of type +<CODE>A</CODE> and the second of type <CODE>B</CODE>. This arrangement lets us do +<I>partial application</I> of function to fewer arguments than the function +is declared to take, returning a new function which takes the rest +of the arguments. +</P> +<H4>Dependent function types</H4> +<P> +In a function type, the value of an argument can be used later +in the type. Such dependent function types are written: +</P> +<PRE> + (x1 : T1) -> ... -> (xn : Tn) -> T +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +Here, <CODE>x1</CODE> can be used in <CODE>T2</CODE> to <CODE>Tn</CODE>, <CODE>x1</CODE> can be used +in <CODE>T2</CODE> to <CODE>Tn</CODE> +</P> +<A NAME="toc9"></A> +<H3>Basic types</H3> +<H4>Integers</H4> +<P> +The type of integers is called <CODE>Integer</CODE>. +standard decmial integer literals are used to represent values of this type. +</P> +<H4>Floating-point numbers</H4> +<P> +The only currently supported floating-point type is <CODE>Double</CODE>, which supports +IEEE-754 double-precision floating-point numbers. Double literals are written +in decimal notation, e.g. <CODE>123.456</CODE>. +</P> +<H4>Strings</H4> +<P> +There is a primitive <CODE>String</CODE> type. This might be replaced by a list of +characters representation in the future. String literals are written +with double quotes, e.g. <CODE>"this is a string"</CODE>. +</P> +<H4>Booleans</H4> +<P> +Booleans are not a built-in type, though some features of the Transfer language +depend on them. +</P> +<PRE> + data Bool : Type where + True : Bool + False : Bool +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +In addition to normal pattern matching on booleans, you can use the built-in +if-expression: +</P> +<PRE> + if exp1 then exp2 else exp3 +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +where <CODE>exp1</CODE> must be an expression of type <CODE>Bool</CODE>. +</P> +<A NAME="toc10"></A> +<H3>Records</H3> +<P> +Record types are created by using a <CODE>sig</CODE> expression: +</P> +<PRE> + sig { p1 : T1; ... ; pn : Tn } +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +Here, <CODE>p1</CODE> to <CODE>pn</CODE> are the field labels and <CODE>T1</CODE> to <CODE>Tn</CODE> are their types. +</P> +<P> +Record values are constructed using <CODE>rec</CODE> expressions: +</P> +<PRE> + rec { p1 = exp1; ... ; pn = expn } +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +The curly braces and semicolons are simply explicit layout syntax, so +the record type and record expression above can also be written as: +</P> +<PRE> + sig p1 : T1 + pn : Tn +</PRE> +<P></P> +<PRE> + rec p1 = exp1 + pn = expn +</PRE> +<P></P> +<H4>Record subtyping</H4> +<P> +A record of some type R1 can be used as a record of any type R2 +such that for every field <CODE>p1 : T1</CODE> in R2, <CODE>p1 : T1</CODE> is also a +field of T1. +</P> +<A NAME="toc11"></A> +<H3>Tuples</H3> +<P> +Tuples on the form: +</P> +<PRE> + (exp1, ..., expn) +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +are syntactic sugar for records with fields <CODE>p1</CODE> to <CODE>pn</CODE>. The expression +above is equivalent to: +</P> +<PRE> + rec { p1 = exp1; ... ; pn = expn } +</PRE> +<P></P> +<A NAME="toc12"></A> +<H3>Lists</H3> +<P> +The <CODE>List</CODE> type is not built-in, though there is some special syntax for it. +The list type is declared as: +</P> +<PRE> + data List : Type -> Type where + Nil : (A:Type) -> List A + Cons : (A:Type) -> A -> List A -> List A +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +The empty lists can be written as <CODE>[]</CODE>. There is a operator <CODE>::</CODE> which can +be used instead of <CODE>Cons</CODE>. These are just syntactic sugar for expressions +using <CODE>Nil</CODE> and <CODE>Cons</CODE>, with the type arguments hidden. +</P> +<A NAME="toc13"></A> +<H2>Pattern matching</H2> +<P> +Pattern matching is done in pattern equations and by using the +<CODE>case</CODE> construct: +</P> +<PRE> + case exp of + p1 | guard1 -> rhs1 + ... + pn | guardn -> rhsn +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +<CODE>guard1</CODE> to <CODE>guardn</CODE> are boolean expressions. Case arms can also be written +without guards, such as: +</P> +<PRE> + pk -> rhsk +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +This is the same as writing: +</P> +<PRE> + pk | True -> rhsk +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +The syntax of patterns are decribed below. +</P> +<A NAME="toc14"></A> +<H3>Constructor patterns</H3> +<P> +Constructor patterns are written as: +</P> +<PRE> + C p1 ... pn +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +where <CODE>C</CODE> is a data constructor which takes <CODE>n</CODE> arguments. +If the value to be matched is the constructor <CODE>C</CODE> applied to +arguments <CODE>v1</CODE> to <CODE>vn</CODE>, then <CODE>v1</CODE> to <CODE>vn</CODE> will be matched +against <CODE>p1</CODE> to <CODE>pn</CODE>. +</P> +<A NAME="toc15"></A> +<H3>Variable patterns</H3> +<P> +A variable pattern is a single identifier: +</P> +<PRE> + x +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +A variable pattern matches any value, and binds the variable name to the +value. A variable may not occur more than once in a pattern. +</P> +<A NAME="toc16"></A> +<H3>Wildcard patterns</H3> +<P> +Wildcard patterns are written as with a single underscore: +</P> +<PRE> + _ +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +Wildcard patterns match all values and bind no variables. +</P> +<A NAME="toc17"></A> +<H3>Record patterns</H3> +<P> +Record patterns match record values: +</P> +<PRE> + rec { l1 = p1; ... ; ln = pn } +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +A record value matches a record pattern, if the record value has all the +fields <CODE>l1</CODE> to <CODE>ln</CODE>, and their values match <CODE>p1</CODE> to <CODE>pn</CODE>. +</P> +<P> +Note that a record value may have more fields than the record pattern and +they will still match. +</P> +<A NAME="toc18"></A> +<H3>Disjunctive patterns</H3> +<P> +It is possible to write a pattern on the form: +</P> +<PRE> + p1 || ... || pn +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +A value will match this pattern if it matches any of the patterns <CODE>p1</CODE> to <CODE>pn</CODE>. +FIXME: talk about how this is expanded +</P> +<A NAME="toc19"></A> +<H3>List patterns</H3> +<A NAME="toc20"></A> +<H3>Tuple patterns</H3> +<P> +Tuples patterns on the form: +</P> +<PRE> + (p1, ... , pn) +</PRE> +<P></P> +<P> +are syntactic sugar for record patterns, in the same way as tuple expressions. +</P> +<A NAME="toc21"></A> +<H3>String literal patterns</H3> +<P> +String literals can be used as patterns. +</P> +<A NAME="toc22"></A> +<H3>Integer literal patterns</H3> +<P> +Integer literals can be used as patterns. +</P> +<A NAME="toc23"></A> +<H2>Meta variables</H2> +<A NAME="toc24"></A> +<H2>Type classes</H2> +<A NAME="toc25"></A> +<H2>Operators</H2> +<A NAME="toc26"></A> +<H2>Compositional functions</H2> +<A NAME="toc27"></A> +<H2>do notation</H2> + +<!-- html code generated by txt2tags 2.0 (http://txt2tags.sf.net) --> +<!-- cmdline: txt2tags darcs.txt transfer-reference.txt transfer-tutorial.txt transfer.txt --> +</BODY></HTML> |